DONATE TODAY
16
Macrobotanical Remains
Karen R. Adams
Contents
- Results
- Domesticated Species
- Phaseolus vulgaris-type (common bean) cotyledon
Triticum-type (domestic wheat) caryopsis (grain)
Zea mays (maize, corn) kernel, cob fragment, cob segment, cupule, stalk fragment, stalk segment - Wild Plants: Gymnosperms
- Ephedra-type (Mormon tea) charcoal
Juniperus osteosperma-type (juniper) fruit, seed, twig, scale leaf; Juniperus-type charcoal
Pinus edulis-type (pinyon) cone scale fragment, needle fragment; Pinus-type bark scale, charcoal - Wild Plants: Angiosperms
- Amelanchier/Peraphyllum-type (serviceberry) charcoal
Artemisia tridentata-type (big sagebrush) flower bud, leaf; Artemisia-type charcoal
Atriplex-type (saltbush) charcoal
Capparaceae-type (beeweed) seed
Cercocarpus-type (mountain mahogany) axillary bud, charcoal
Cheno-am seed
Chrysothamnus-type (rabbitbrush) charcoal
Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type (winged pigweed) seed
Cyperaceae-type achene; Scirpus-type (sedge) achene
Echinocereus-type (hedgehog cactus) seed
Euphorbia glyptosperma-type (spurge) seed
Fraxinus anomala-type (single-leaf ash) charcoal
Gramineae caryopsis (grain)
Malvaceae-type (mallow) seed
Mentzelia albicaulis-type (stickleaf) seed
Monocotyledon tissue, including Yucca-type
Nicotiana attenuata-type (wild tobacco) seed
Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seed
Physalis longifolia-type (groundcherry) seed
Plantago-type (woolly-wheat) seed
Populus/Salix-type (cottonwood/willow) charcoal
Portulaca retusa-type (portulaca, purslane) seed
Purshia-type (bitterbrush/cliffrose) charcoal
Quercus-type (oak) charcoal
Rhus aromatica-type (lemonadeberry) seed
Stipa hymenoides-type (also known as Oryzopsis hymenoides) (ricegrass) caryopsis, floret - Site-by-Site Discussion of Plant Remains
- G and G Hamlet (5MT11338)
Lillian's Site (5MT3936)
Roy's Ruin (5MT3930)
Kenzie Dawn Hamlet (5MT5152)
Shorlene's Site (5MT3918)
Troy's Tower (5MT3951)
Lester's Site (5MT10246)
Lookout House (5MT10459)
Stanton's Site (5MT10508)
Catherine's Site (5MT3967)
Saddlehorn Hamlet (5MT262)
Mad Dog Tower (5MT181)
Castle Rock Pueblo (5MT1825)
- Discussion
- Geographic Comparisons
- Upper Sand Canyon Community, Mesa-Top Sites
Upper Sand Canyon Community, Talus-Slope and Bench Sites
Lower Sand Canyon Community Sites
Upper and Lower Sand Canyon Community Comparisons
Summary of Geographic Comparisons - Functional Comparisons
Introduction
The macrobotanical assemblage from the tested sites consists of tiny plant remains recovered via a water-flotation technique, as well as larger plant remains (macrofossils) that were hand-picked from site sediments during excavation. The analysis of these materials is the subject of this chapter; the results of pollen analysis are reported separately, in Chapter 17. Because the sampling strategy employed during the Site Testing Program resulted in the excavation of a limited number and variety of contexts, the collection of macrofossils and standardized 1-liter flotation samples emphasized the retrieval of material from thermal features (for example, hearths, fire pits, roasting pits, and ash pits) and deposits of refuse (for example, in midden areas and abandoned structures). The thermal features were relatively undisturbed, but some of the refuse deposits may have been altered by a variety of postabandonment activities and processes, such as erosion, plowing, chaining, grazing, and looting. Plant remains were also recovered from a small number of special contexts--for example, burials and courtyards. And finally, a variety of control samples were collected to allow assessment of patterns in the prehistoric record. In all, 183 flotation samples and 116 separate lots of macrofossils were analyzed, and the results of these analyses constitute the database reported in this chapter.
Methods/Procedures
The flotation method outlined in the following condensed steps was designed to be rapid, gentle, and reduce cross-contamination between flotation samples. A standard amount of sediment, 1 liter in volume (or a measured amount if less than 1 liter), was slowly poured into a bucket of water. Heavy material, such as stone and pottery, sank to the bottom. The light fraction floating on the surface was immediately poured through a set of graduated geological screens (4.75 mm, 2.8 mm, 1.4 mm, 0.71 mm, and 0.25 mm) to be segregated by size prior to drying. Each particle size was dried indoors on separately labeled newspaper, and then bagged. For each flotation sample, all light fraction material that was greater than 0.25 mm in size was then examined under a binocular microscope with magnifications ranging up to 50�, and all noncharcoal items (seeds, leaves, fruit parts, etc.) were identified, if possible. For wood charcoal, the goal of identifying 20 pieces per sample was accomplished by selecting from among the largest pieces available. Although this method increases confidence in identification because a larger cross section of wood anatomy can be viewed, it is not known if any size bias exists in wood charcoal preservation of the common trees and shrubs in the Sand Canyon locality.
Results
At least 32 plant taxa were recovered from the tested sites (Table 16.1). All items discussed in the text and tables are charred, unless otherwise noted, and, with the exception of a modern wheat (Triticum) grain, are presumed to have been burned during the occupation of each site. Taxonomic nomenclature conforms to Welsh et al. (1987). Most taxonomic identifications are followed by the word "type" in both the text and tables of this chapter. This qualifier conveys that the specimen cited resembles the taxon named, but that it cannot be identified without reservation. This conservative approach is followed for two reasons: (a) the degraded and burned condition of ancient specimens often precludes positive identification; and (b) the entire suite of potentially confusing alternatives is not available in the modern comparative collection used, nor even potentially known, by the author. The anatomical and morphological criteria used to recognize the parts can be found in Appendix B.
This section first summarizes information on the individual plant taxa and parts recovered from the tested sites. Pertinent data include (a) the general presence of each type of material within the 13 sites, (b) the current distribution of the plants in the Sand Canyon locality, and (c) some historic Native American uses. In the individual site discussions which then follow, interpretations of fuelwood and food use derive in part from this background information and in part from the specific archaeological contexts of the remains within each individual site.
Domesticated Species
Phaseolus vulgaris-type (common bean) cotyledon
In five of the 13 tested sites discussed in this report, Phaseolus remains preserved as macrofossils recognized by archaeologists during excavation or as cotyledons (half seeds) in flotation samples. The rare presence of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris-type) remains from archaeological sites most likely understates the importance of this resource. Preparation techniques and a low likelihood of preservation may have combined to underrepresent the level of bean use by ancient groups (Gasser and Adams 1981). Domesticated beans were listed as among the most common plant types recovered in Puebloan coprolites in the Four Corners region (Minnis 1989:550).
Triticum-type (domestic wheat) caryopsis (grain)
Although rather small, a single charred caryopsis (grain) having the features of a domestic wheat grain (Renfrew 1973) was recovered from floor ash of one of the mesa-top sites. Triticum is an Old World species; there are no known native species of Triticum in the New World. At present it is thought that when modern farmers burned stubble from a nearby field of wheat, a charred grain was inadvertently incorporated into the ancient deposits.
Zea mays (maize, corn) kernel, cob fragment, cob segment, cupule, stalk fragment, stalk segment
Domesticated corn evidence occurs in the form of kernels, cupules, and larger cob parts in 12 of the 13 sites. Although accidents of parching or preparation could account for the limited presence of charred kernels, the cob fragments and cupules may be the remains of spent fuel. Historic groups (Castetter and Bell 1942:181; Buskirk 1949:133; Lange 1968:117) often used leftover corn cobs as tinder or as fuel.
Wild Plants: Gymnosperms
Ephedra-type (Mormon tea) charcoal
Ephedra viridis is presently growing in the region, and Ephedra charcoal was recovered from four tested sites. Although Ephedra is not commonly considered a hearth fuel by historic groups, other uses of the stems in craft-making (Timbrook 1984:154), as an ingredient in a sweat bath (Swank 1932:42), or in medicinal treatments (Jones 1931:28; Swank 1932:42) might lead someone to toss leftover woody parts of Mormon tea into a hearth.
Juniperus osteosperma-type (juniper) fruit, seed, twig, scale leaf; Juniperus-type charcoal
Juniper charcoal, twigs, scale leaves, fruit, or seeds were identified in all 13 tested sites, strongly suggesting fuel use and possibly the gathering of fruit as food. The choice of juniper wood for construction material and fuel is widely documented for both historic and ancient groups (Adams 1988). Juniperus osteosperma is a dominant species in the pinyon-juniper woodland in the area today. The ripe fruit can cling to branches for months following maturity, making it difficult to determine seasonality of acquisition.
Pinus edulis-type (pinyon) cone scale fragment, needle fragment; Pinus-type bark scale, charcoal
Like juniper, pine was a fuelwood choice at all 13 tested sites. Although Pinus-type bark scales and charcoal were most likely from nearby Pinus edulis trees, a small portion of this evidence could represent acquisition of Pinus ponderosa or Pseudotsuga materials which also grew in the general region. The bark scales would be brought into a dwelling on larger trunks used for fuel or as construction material. Historic and ancient groups have found a variety of uses for pine trees beyond building beams and hearth fuel, including harvesting the "nuts" for food (Adams 1988). The sometimes sparse record of pinyon (Pinus edulis) nutshells in Pueblo III archaeological sites (none were recovered from the tested sites) is confirmed by the Four Corners Puebloan coprolite record, but one might not expect Puebloans to have routinely eaten the nutshells. Researchers have speculated that low recovery of pinyon is due to a reduction in the number of available pinyon trees as a consequence of field clearing (Minnis 1989:550), but at least for the tested sites, pine (likely pinyon) was used often as a fuel and, to a lesser extent, as a construction timber resource.
Wild Plants: Angiosperms
Amelanchier/Peraphyllum-type (serviceberry) charcoal
Charcoal of either Amelanchier or Peraphyllum was identified from 11 of the 13 tested sites. Both Amelanchier utahensis and the closely related Peraphyllum ramosissimum grow in the area today. Amelanchier is listed as a food, rather than as a fuel, among historic groups (Jones 1931:21-22; Franciscan Fathers 1910; Ebeling 1986:377; Whiting 1966). If the shrubs sought by the occupants of the Sand Canyon locality communities were used for bows, arrows, prayer sticks, or ceremonial equipment, as the Hopi used Amelanchier (Whiting 1966), the leftover stems might have been added to the fire.
Artemisia tridentata-type (big sagebrush) flower bud, leaf; Artemisia-type charcoal
Artemisia charcoal was preserved in 12 of the 13 tested sites, implying rather regular use. The charred flower buds recovered from two sites hint that the season of the last fires in these locations was fall, the period of flowering and fruiting. Artemisia tridentata is abundant in the area today. Modern groups sought big sagebrush as fuel only when no other resource was available (Robbins et al. 1916:45; Bye 1972:93). Alternative uses of big sagebrush stems among historic groups include use as raw material for basketry (Ebeling 1986:84, 130) and as a floor covering for a sweat lodge Bohrer 1964). Sometimes the leaves were boiled in water to provide a stomach remedy (Krenetsky 1964:44). Although not documented here, the use of Artemisia "seeds" (achenes) as a food is summarized for Great Basin groups (Ebeling 1986); apparently the achenes were once gathered in large quantities, parched, and ground into flour for making a mush.
Atriplex-type (saltbush) charcoal
Atriplex-type charcoal was recovered only in a single tested site in lower Sand Canyon. This shrub is a component of the modern vegetation, although in upper Sand Canyon it often grows only on archaeological sites. Atriplex wood is one of the chief kiva fuels among the Hopi (Whiting 1966:38).
Capparaceae-type (beeweed) seed
Capparaceae-type seeds were found in three of the upper Sand Canyon sites. Cleome currently grows in damp drainage bottoms in the lower Sand Canyon area, flowering in summer and rapidly producing mature pods with seeds. It might also do well in upland agricultural fields receiving enhanced water during the summer, and it is easy to envision the seeds being planted and encouraged purposefully in these locations. Young plants and mature seeds of various members of the beeweed family (Cleome/Polanisia) have been eaten by historic groups (Adams 1980). The chances are also good that beeweed could have been used as a moist, steam-producing material for roasting or, in boiled-down form, as an organic pottery paint.
Cercocarpus-type (mountain mahogany) axillary bud, charcoal
Cercocarpus axillary buds or charcoal were identified in 10 of the tested sites. Cercocarpus is a common shrub in the area today. Mountain mahogany branches have not been regularly sought as a fuel by modern groups. Instead, the dense wood of Cercocarpus was fashioned into a wide variety of tools and weapons (Adams 1988). The Navajo called one species "heavy as a stone" because of its compact, fine-grained structure (Matthews 1886:772).
Cheno-am seed
Seeds of either Chenopodium (goosefoot) or Amaranthus (pigweed) were recognized in 11 of the 13 tested sites. At present, representatives of both genera are plants of highly disturbed habitats such as agricultural fields, pathways, and middens. Assuming there is often a huge seed reservoir in the soil, new seedlings can germinate abundantly when moisture and temperature conditions are right. Generally in the Sand Canyon locality, Chenopodium plants germinate and begin growth in mid-summer, some number of weeks before local species of Amaranthus do likewise. In essence, this sequential development provides a fairly long-term supply of greens and seeds.
If parching the small black seeds of these plants was a common preparation step, one might expect some seeds to have been dropped into hearths or onto floors, and ultimately swept up and deposited into the middens. An alternative use might have been as a layer of greens to line a roasting pit. Extensive historic records document harvesting of these taxa (Adams 1988). The leaves could be cooked like spinach and the seeds ground into flour for a variety of uses.
Chrysothamnus-type (rabbitbrush) charcoal
Chrysothamnus charcoal preserved in only three of the tested sites, presumably as fuel or as the leftover debris from some material culture use. Rabbitbrush shrubs are common in the Sand Canyon locality today, so their low recovery in the archaeological record is interesting. The plants have a wide variety of uses among historic groups, including as a chief kiva fuel, for wind breaks, as arrow shafts, in the manufacture of wicker plaques, and as a yellow dye (Whiting 1966:95).
Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type (winged pigweed) seed
Winged pigweed seeds preserved in three upper Sand Canyon tested sites. An annual "tumbleweed" type of plant, Cycloloma often grows in sandy fields (Correll and Johnston 1970:529). The author has not located this plant yet in modern floral surveys of the area, but it is listed as growing in blackbrush, mixed desert shrub, and juniper communities in nearby San Juan County in Utah (Welsh et al. 1987:127) and in eastern Colorado at elevations of 3500-8000 ft (Harrington 1964:209). Possibly Cycloloma owes its depleted status to its role as a preferred food by wildlife and domestic grazing animals. The season of seed availability would likely be fall (Bohrer 1978:14).
Cyperaceae-type achene; Scirpus-type (sedge) achene
Members of the sedge family were recognized in four upper Sand Canyon tested sites. They are grasslike perennial or annual herbs, often restricted to moist locations (Welsh et al. 1987:653). At least one sedge (Scirpus acutus) grows at Sand Canyon Pueblo today. Many plants in the Cyperaceae have been gathered as food by historic groups, and provided food for ancient Southwestern groups as well (Adams 1988). However, the achenes may also preserve as a by-product of use as moist, steam-producing vegetation in roasting events.
Echinocereus-type (hedgehog cactus) seed
Presently, hedgehog cacti grow scattered in the pinyon-juniper woodland and often produce sweet, ripe fruit by late summer. If the sweet fruit were consumed whole, to be recovered only in human coprolites, that might explain the presence of only a single hedgehog cactus seed in the midden of a talus-slope site.
Euphorbia glyptosperma-type (spurge) seed
A single spurge seed was identified from a mesa-top site. Spurges are annual or perennial herbs, and on occasion seem weedy in nature. Their milky juice is generally considered poisonous, so spurge seeds in an archaeological site are puzzling. Nevertheless, the ubiquity, distribution, and condition of these seeds at another pueblo in northwestern New Mexico led to an interpretation of food use (Adams 1980:39-42). However, the meager record at the tested sites does not suggest a food residue.
Fraxinus anomala-type (single-leaf ash) charcoal
Single-leaf ash grows sparsely in the lower Sand Canyon drainage and uplands. Its presence in two of the tested sites suggests occasional use as fuelwood in prehistory.
Gramineae caryopsis (grain)
Charred Gramineae grains preserved in 10 of the 13 tested sites. These could well be the remains of food, as the modern and ancient records clearly document consumption of wild grasses (Bohrer 1975; Doebley 1984; Minnis 1989). However, one must consider that grasses, along with other herbaceous, moisture-laden plants, could also be gathered to line pits to provide steam for roasting.
Malvaceae-type (mallow) seed
Only two tested sites yielded any Malvaceae-type seeds. Sphaeralcea coccinea is a common mallow in the Sand Canyon locality today, flowering and fruiting in the early summer. It is particularly noticeable in open areas recovering from past chaining and currently experiencing grazing pressure. The plant displayed only a minor presence in the first year of vegetation recovery in two previously disturbed experimental gardens, so it is not a plant of recently disturbed habitats.
Mentzelia albicaulis-type (stickleaf) seed
Stickleaf (Mentzelia albicaulis) seeds were recovered from three of the tested sites. The seeds of this species are faceted or irregularly angled, instead of winged (as are those of another common regional stickleaf, Mentzelia pumila), and have been documented as a food by both historic and ancient groups (Bohrer 1978:11-13). The plants grow well on dry slopes and banks, often in sandy soil in Arizona (Kearney and Peebles 1960:566), and in most Utah counties including San Juan (Welsh et al. 1987:414). The species is reported from western Colorado at 4500-7000 ft in elevation (Harrington 1964:380), and it has been collected at 6920 ft in a disturbed area of pinyon-juniper woodland not far from Troy's Tower and Catherine's Site. These plants bloom in June and July, and mature seeds can be harvested by mid- to late July.
Monocotyledon tissue, including Yucca-type
Two tested sites preserved tissue with the parallel veining of plants designated Monocotyledons. All grasses (including Zea mays) and Yucca would fall into this broad category. On occasion, occupants carried in Monocotyledon leaves and stems, possibly to serve some material culture need. Monocotyledon plants are quite common in the Sand Canyon locality today.
Nicotiana attenuata-type (wild tobacco) seed
A single, charred wild tobacco seed was identified from a talus-slope site, scant evidence of tobacco use. Indirect evidence in the form of reedgrass cigarettes preserved in nearby Sand Canyon Pueblo (K. Adams 1989). Nicotiana appears to require a significant amount of disturbance. For example, Nicotiana attenuata flourished in the region in the first year following a fire in pinyon-juniper woodland (Adams 1991, 1993b). It has also been observed in two unburned, disturbed experimental garden sites and in a backfilled structure at Sand Canyon Pueblo. Seeds can be continually produced from late summer through the first heavy frost of fall. The taxon has a long history of use by indigenous peoples of the Southwestern U.S. (Adams 1990).
Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seed
Charred prickly pear seeds were recovered in nine of the 13 tested sites. A number of prickly pear species grow in the region at present (Turner 1982:145), and the ability of ripe fruit to cling to stems for months following late summer maturity would permit harvest over a long period. Since some prickly pear species produce dry-podded fruits and others produce fleshy fruits, it is hard to say which part(s) was used or how the resource was prepared to result in the deposition of seeds into thermal features.
Physalis longifolia-type (groundcherry) seed
Nine tested sites, all in upper Sand Canyon, preserved groundcherry seeds. At least two species of perennial groundcherry (Physalis longifolia, Physalis hederifolia) thrive in the Sand Canyon locality along roadsides and in other disturbed habitats, including experimental gardens. Groundcherry plants can produce copious amounts of mature fruit by late summer. Both historic and ancient groups are known to have gathered the ripe fruit as food (Adams 1988). Fruit remains are commonly recovered in Four Corners area Puebloan coprolites (Minnis 1989:550). The difficulty lies in explaining the charred nature of the remains. The historic record reveals that the fruit was usually eaten raw, dried, or boiled as a condiment (Adams 1988), and these methods of preparation only hint at how groundcherry seeds would routinely become charred. Possibly uncharred seeds were swept from floors directly into hearths.
Plantago-type (woolly-wheat) seed
Woolly-wheat seeds were identified from two of the tested sites. Recently, plants have been observed in upland communities in the Sand Canyon locality. An annual species, Plantago patagonica, grows in nearby San Juan County in Utah (Welsh et al. 1987:454-455). The seeds provide a cool-season resource, usually by late spring/early summer. The seeds are found on occasion in ancient sites, though some modern groups do not recognize the plant (Whiting 1966:92).
Populus/Salix-type (cottonwood/willow) charcoal
Cottonwood and/or willow charcoal preserved in nine of the 13 tested sites. Both tree types are currently confined to the moist settings of springs and canyon bottoms. Wood from both has been extensively used by modern groups in construction, as hearth fuel, and in the manufacture of household tools. The branches have also been fashioned into basketry, and the roots carved into rafts and dolls (Adams 1988).
Portulaca retusa-type (portulaca, purslane) seed
Portulaca seeds were identified from three upper Sand Canyon tested sites. One might be tempted to suspect the use of this fleshy annual plant in roasting pits as vegetation brought in to produce steam, were it not for the fact that the seeds preserved primarily in hearths, suggesting food use. Repeated parching of the small, round seeds would permit spillage into hearths; because the seeds are compact and have tough seed coats, they would survive total destruction. Purslane seeds have been gathered for food by numerous historic and ancient Southwestern groups (Adams 1988), and purslane evidence is often found in Four Corners-area Puebloan coprolites (Minnis 1989:550).
Portulaca is a persistent weed of gardens and fields, widespread in indigenous plant communities (Welsh et al. 1987:496). Often it germinates with the rains of mid-summer and rapidly flowers and fruits in August. When harvested in large quantities, it continues to flower and mature seed even after being pulled and left to dry. Such a habit would encourage people to uproot the plants and store them where the seeds could be collected as they matured. This plant has flourished in two experimental gardens, both during gardening and in the first fallow year.
Purshia-type (bitterbrush/cliffrose) charcoal
Charcoal that could represent either Purshia tridentata (bitterbrush) or Purshia mexicana (cliffrose) preserved in 11 of the 13 tested sites. Both species grow in the area today. Historic literature suggests that Purshia (as Cowania) provided material for arrow shafts (Swank 1932:38), medicines and cigarettes (Reagan 1929:156, 159; Whiting 1966:78), and basketry (Ebeling 1986:84). The bark offered fibers for clothing, mats, belts, sandals, and ropes (Bye 1972:95; Whiting 1966:78). Purshia charcoal in archaeological settings might be leftover debris from the items listed above, or it might document ancient fuelwood use not common among modern groups.
Quercus-type (oak) charcoal
Four tested sites in upper Sand Canyon retained oak charcoal remains. At present, the shrubby Quercus gambelii (Gambel oak) grows on sunny, rocky slopes leading into the major canyons in the region. The use of oak wood for tool handles is well documented for modern groups, and oak was used in making implements and baskets, as well as in house construction, by Pueblo III peoples elsewhere in Colorado (Nickens 1981a:77). The historic record of acorn use as food is extensive, and the archaeological record of acorn consumption is moderate (Adams 1988). The presence of oak remains in Four Corners coprolites is not noted (Minnis 1989), although certain preparation methods might decrease the chances of identifying acorn meal.
Rhus aromatica-type (lemonadeberry) seed
Lemonadeberry seeds were found in a single mesa-top site. The shrubs, found in both upper and lower Sand Canyon, produce ripe fruit in early June in the region today. Gathering of lemonadeberry fruit for food is well documented for historic groups, although leaves, twigs, roots, buds, pollen, and wood are also known to serve human needs (Adams 1988).
Stipa hymenoides-type (also known as Oryzopsis hymenoides) (ricegrass) caryopsis, floret
Ricegrass florets (grain plus attached chaffy parts) were recovered in three of the tested sites. Perennial ricegrass plants do well in sandy, disturbed areas in the Sand Canyon locality, where they have been observed on recently backfilled or disturbed talus at archaeological sites and in two experimental gardens. The grass grains are exceptionally high in protein (Welsh et al. 1987:784) and fall easily from the chaff when ripe (Whiting 1966:65). Cutting bundles of the ripening stalks and holding them over a fire both parches and releases the grains for collection. As a cool-season plant, ricegrass provides food in the early summer, and sometimes has a second, smaller flowering that produces a small grain harvest in the fall.
Site-by-Site Discussion of Plant Remains
Each of the 13 tested sites is reviewed separately below. In this section, and in all sections which follow, ubiquity has been calculated on the basis of all samples examined that are pertinent to the discussion at hand. An alternative, not used here, would have been to calculate ubiquity on the basis of only those samples that preserved identifiable plant remains.
G and G Hamlet (5MT11338)
All plant remains recovered in 12 flotation samples from G and G Hamlet (Table 16.2) are considered to be from Pueblo III deposits (see Chapter 2); however, the site had a large Pueblo II occupation and the possibility of mixing cannot be discounted. Archaeologists sampled a hearth and a nearby ash pit in the masonry-lined kiva (Structure 1) and secured both an upper and a lower control sample in the vicinity of this hearth. These are confidently assigned to the Pueblo III occupation. Archaeologists also sampled ashy and nonash deposits in the main site midden (Nonstructure 1), which is primarily Pueblo III material. A slab-lined hearth in the courtyard, which dates to the Pueblo III occupation, preserved some charred debris. No larger macrofossils were recovered during excavation.
The deposits in the kiva hearth are not identical to those in the ash pit, which may represent multiple prior hearth clean-outs. They share in common Artemisia and Amelanchier/Peraphyllum-type charcoal and Physalis longifolia-type seeds. Two flotation samples from the kiva hearth also retained charcoal of Juniperus, Quercus gambelii, Cercocarpus, and Pinus-type bark scales, along with a Gramineae grain and an unknown seed. The ash pit preserved charred wood of Purshia and a Zea kernel fragment. No recognizable plant parts were recovered in the upper control sample, and the lower control sample preserved only Juniperus twig fragments.
Together, the hearth and ash pit records provide an important view of plant use in the kiva at G and G Hamlet. Fuel needs were satisfied by a variety of tree and shrub wood, and probably Zea cobs. Foods prepared in this area likely included both Zea and Physalis and possibly native Gramineae grains. The differences between taxa recovered from these two features suggest some plant use diversity within the relatively short time between ash pit accumulation and subsequent hearth reuse.
The main site midden presumably accumulated over a much longer period of time, although some of the plant remains have been lost to such factors as chaining, rodent disturbance, and looting. Three flotation samples from poorly defined ashy lenses preserved charcoal of Pinus (3/3), Juniperus (3/3), Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (2/3), and both Pinus-type bark scales (2/3) and a Pinus edulis-type needle fragment (1/3), along with Artemisia (1/3) and Cercocarpus (1/3).(1) Reproductive parts recovered include Physalis longifolia-type seeds (3/3), Zea cupule (1/3) and kernel fragments (2/3), and cheno-am seeds (2/3). Two nonashy midden flotation samples preserved only Artemisia (1/2), Pinus (1/2), and Juniperus (1/2) charcoal.
With few exceptions, the midden record at G and G Hamlet is quite similar to that of the hearth and ash pit samples in the kiva. The midden must have in part accumulated with debris burned or prepared in the kiva hearth, which was then transferred to the kiva ash pit, and later was moved outdoors to the midden.
The slab-lined hearth in the courtyard preserved a record of plant use similar to that already described. Two flotation samples retained charcoal of Artemisia (2/2), Populus/Salix (1/2), Juniperus (1/2), Pinus (1/2), Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (1/2), and Pinus bark scales (2/2). Zea cupules (2/2) and a kernel fragment (1/2), cheno-am seeds (1/2), Physalis longifolia-type seeds (2/2), and a Juniperus seed (1/2) complete the list. This record suggests general food preparation, rather than a specialized activity involving a single resource.
The overall plant record from G and G Hamlet reflects both agricultural and wild plant resource use. People had access to Zea mays and most likely burned leftover cobs in their hearths as tinder or fuel. Physalis plants probably grew in agricultural fields or in other disturbed areas such as along paths or on accumulating middens; their ripe fruit appears to have provided a food source. At least one of a variety of native grasses in the local area may have been harvested. The Juniperus seed could represent food use or incidental inclusion on juniper branches carried in for fuelwood. Although most tree and shrub species recovered as charcoal from G and G features were probably available locally, as they are at present, people would have had to travel perhaps a short distance to acquire Populus/Salix wood from a mesic habitat.
Lillian's Site (5MT3936)
The charred plant materials in 22 flotation samples from Lillian's Site (Table 16.3) document plant needs during the Pueblo III occupation, and possibly earlier, as limited Pueblo II and Basketmaker III occupations are also documented (Chapter 3). Contexts sampled for flotation include kiva hearth ash and midden refuse, plus an upper control and a lower control for the midden.
The masonry-lined pit structure (Structure 1) is interpreted as a Mesa Verde-style kiva. Flotation samples taken in the fill and from a hearth in the floor preserved a record of fuel and food use. Fill that covered the floor was either deliberately deposited after abandonment or fell into the structure when the roof was dismantled to be taken elsewhere; it included charred wood of Artemisia, Juniperus, Pinus, and an unknown woody plant.
The adobe-lined hearth in the floor of this kiva contained charcoal and other parts suggestive of fuel use. Three hearth flotation samples preserved Juniperus charcoal; charred wood of Artemisia, Purshia, and Amelanchier/Peraphyllum were recovered in two samples. Pinus and Ephedra charcoal each occurred once. A Juniperus osteosperma-type twig, Pinus-type bark scales, Zea mays cupules, and an Artemisia flower bud complement the record of tinder or fuel use.
Charred reproductive parts of four taxa that preserved in the kiva hearth probably are the remains of food. These include a Portulaca retusa-type seed, a Gramineae caryopsis, a Juniperus osteosperma-type fruit, and a Rhus aromatica-type seed fragment. Of these, only Rhus evidence preserved elsewhere at Lillian's site.
Only fuel use is documented by the plant record in the courtyard and in Structure 2, a masonry surface room in the east roomblock. In the courtyard, Juniperus and an unknown charcoal type were found in the fill of a burned spot, suggesting that this thermal feature functioned as some sort of outdoor hearth. As with Structure 1, the roof timbers in Structure 2 were apparently removed by the pueblo occupants for use elsewhere; in this case the weakened upper walls then collapsed directly onto the floor. The fill of Structure 2 contained charred wood of Artemisia, Juniperus, Pinus, Purshia, and an unknown type, reflecting postoccupational mixing. An area of disturbed hearth ash, possibly deriving from an in-place fire, contained Artemisia charcoal.
Although the evidence at Lillian's Site suggests a predominantly Pueblo III occupation, the presence of earlier Mancos sherds in all levels of the main midden reveals some cultural intermixing. There were no distinct ash lenses visible in the midden. Archaeologists noted that modern chaining, pot hunting, and rodent activity were partly responsible for homogenization of the deposits.
A total of 13 flotation samples from all levels of the main midden reveals both food and fuel use. The presence of cheno-am seeds in six of these samples suggests frequent acquisition of a locally available native weedy resource. A somewhat reduced recovery rate for Physalis longifolia-type seeds (4/13), Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seeds (3/13), and Zea mays kernels (3/13) implies occasional use. Excavators also recovered Zea kernels and two cob segments as macrofossils from the midden. The presence of a single Capparaceae-type seed and a single Rhus aromatica seed hints at other possible foods.
Juniperus charcoal is the predominant charcoal type recovered from 12 of the 13 midden samples. The Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs in three samples may have been carried in on juniper branches gathered for fuel. Other frequently occurring fuels are Zea cupules (7/13), Pinus charcoal (6/13), Pinus bark scales (3/13), and Purshia charcoal (5/13). Types recovered in only two flotation samples each include Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, Quercus, and Artemisia. Nothing was recovered from the lower control for the midden, and only Juniperus charcoal was present in the upper control.
In overview, the occupants at Lillian's Site had access to domesticated Zea. Since they frequently burned leftover corn cobs in their hearths, the fields were likely nearby. They often harvested native cheno-am resources, probably from summer through fall. Other foods included Rhus fruit, available in early summer, and late summer/early fall resources such as Physalis longifolia-type fruit, Portulaca seeds, Capparaceae seeds, and Opuntia (prickly pear) fruit. It is clear that a variety of trees and shrubs were frequently used as fuels.
The potential food remains from the last use(s) of the kiva hearth differ somewhat from the general midden record. The kiva preserved Portulaca and Gramineae reproductive parts not recovered in the midden. This, coupled with the presence of a single Artemisia flower bud and Zea cupules, suggests that this last use may have been in early fall, when Artemisia is known to form its reproductive parts (Adams 1993a:202) and when a new Zea crop would have become available. In this scenario, the Rhus aromatica fruit, normally ripe much earlier in the summer, would had to have been in storage prior to use. The kiva hearth also contained the only record of Ephedra charcoal at the site; the size of Ephedra wood does not make it a good candidate for fuelwood, so some other use may be expressed here.
Roy's Ruin (5MT3930)
The period represented by 16 flotation samples (Table 16.4) from Roy's Ruin spans the early to mid-A.D. 1200s (Chapter 4). A limited-use Pueblo II occupation is also represented, but these contexts were not sampled for flotation analysis.
Since no hearth was encountered during excavation, excavators retrieved charred plant remains from floor ash, from under a stone slab on the floor, and from ashy refuse in the fill of a masonry-lined kiva (Structure 1). The floor ash, thought to be associated with a fire during structure abandonment, preserved Artemisia, Juniperus, Populus/Salix, and Purshia charcoal, all probably fuels or other material culture resources. The floor scrape under a stone slab protected a rare Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type seed (winged pigweed), along with some Juniperus charcoal. The Cycloloma seed may be the only evidence of a once more widespread plant harvested for its edible seeds. Three charcoal types were identified from a lower control sample under the floor of Structure 1. Juniperus, Artemisia, and an unknown charcoal type present in an upper control sample within the kiva reveal some general mixing of site materials in upper levels, as do macrofossils such as charcoal of Juniperus, Pinus, Artemisia, Quercus, and an unknown wood recovered in general kiva fill.
The main midden, plowed and probably looted in historic times, has preserved burned plant remains from the Pueblo III occupation of the site. Charcoal types identified, in order of ubiquity in eight flotation samples, include Juniperus (7/8), Pinus (2/8), Populus/Salix (2/8), and Artemisia (1/8). Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs in three of these samples may have accompanied juniper branches sought as fuel. Likewise, the Zea cupules in three samples probably are what is left after cobs were burned. A separate midden upper control sample from close to the ground surface contained limited fuel evidence in the form of Juniperus charcoal, a Pinus-type bark scale, and a Pinus edulis-type needle fragment.
Although the predominant midden record is of charred wood and other potential fuels, some reproductive parts have also survived. Cheno-am seeds and Physalis longifolia-type seeds were both recovered in two samples, and a Scirpus-type achene preserved in one. In addition, archaeologists collected a domesticated bean (Phaseolus vulgaris-type) cotyledon during excavation. It is likely that all these remains derive from prehistoric foods at Roy's Ruin.
Other refuse contexts were also sampled. An ash lens from the inner periphery sampling stratum, likely contemporaneous with accumulation of the main midden, preserved a record of fuel use in the form of Juniperus and Pinus charcoal, and a Zea cupule. Two flotation samples were from refuse deposited in the kiva after its abandonment, postdating the main occupation of the site. These two samples contained burned wood of Juniperus (1/5), Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (1/5), Cercocarpus (1/5), and Purshia (1/5). Cheno-am and Physalis longifolia-type seeds, a Gramineae caryopsis, some Monocotyledon-type tissue, a Phaseolus vulgaris-type cotyledon, and a Zea kernel all preserved in a single flotation sample in this fill, revealing use of a similar variety of domestic and native foods and other resources as before.
The charred Zea cob fragments collected by excavators in the inner periphery sampling stratum and in the rubble mound associated with the fallen roomblock and tower (Sampling Stratum 1) further document corn use at the site. Presence of eight uncharred Zea cob fragments in Sampling Stratum 1 may relate to postabandonment events, although their unburned condition opens the possibility that they are of historic age.
In sum, the occupants of Roy's Ruin used Zea mays and domesticated beans (Phaseolus vulgaris-type), and they considered Zea cobs to be a handy fuel source. Cheno-am and Physalis plants, opportunistic weeds of disturbed gardens, seem to have offered a fruit/seed harvest throughout the occupation of this site. The charcoal record at Roy's Ruin is dominated by Juniperus, although some Pinus and a number of other locally available woody shrub types have preserved. Today the nearest locations of Populus/Salix trees are in drainages a short distance from the ruin, and acquiring wood from such trees probably would have required a short walk in ancient times as well. The presence of a single Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type seed on the floor under a stone slab in the kiva is a rare recovery; no plants of this taxon have been seen during modern reconnaissance of the area, but they may have been more abundant before historic times.
Kenzie Dawn Hamlet (5MT5152)
Ten flotation samples (Table 16.5) were collected from contexts representing the late A.D. 1100s to early 1200s at Kenzie Dawn Hamlet (Chapter 5). The samples derive from three major contexts: the hearth in a masonry surface room (Structure 3), the hearth in the latest kiva (Structure 6), and a midden southeast of this late kiva. The hearths in Structures 3 and 6 are associated with contexts that date to the early A.D. 1200s. The midden samples may be a mixture of the Pueblo II and III uses of the site.
The hearth in Structure 3 recorded use of both fuels and food. Juniperus, Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, and Artemisia wood, along with leftover Zea cobs, were all burned there. It seems likely that the fruit of Physalis and cheno-ams, weedy plants currently abundant in disturbed habitats, were somehow prepared or eaten in the vicinity of this hearth. A flotation sample that serves as an upper control for this hearth revealed a slightly different fuel record (Cercocarpus and Amelanchier/Peraphyllum charcoal, Zea cupules) and food record (Opuntia [prickly pear] and cheno-am seeds). This control sample suggests some mixing of cultural debris with the sediments that filled the structure after abandonment.
The latest kiva, Structure 6, preserved a variety of fuelwood types in two flotation samples from the hearth. Artemisia and Juniperus-type charcoal, along with Pinus-type bark scales, were recovered in both samples. Cercocarpus, Pinus, and Purshia charcoal each occurred in a single sample. All these taxa are present in the modern vegetation assemblage, and their dead wood is relatively easy to acquire.
The record of potential foods in the kiva hearth does not differ from that of the structure. Charred Physalis longifolia-type and cheno-am seeds were recovered in both flotation samples. The season of availability of these resources begins in summer and extends at least through the first killing frost of the fall.
The chained and looted midden south of Structure 6 primarily preserved a fuel record that probably represents, among other activities, a number of kiva hearth clean-out events over time. Juniperus, occurring as charcoal in five of six flotation samples, seems to have been a frequently sought wood type. Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (1/6), Pinus (1/6), and Artemisia (3/6) contributed material on occasion, along with Zea cobs. The only potential food remains (a Physalis longifolia-type seed, one Scirpus achene, and one cheno-am seed) were recovered from a single flotation sample about 45 cm below the modern ground surface; at this depth, preservation conditions may have been slightly better than for other samples secured nearer the surface. The possibility exists that this deep deposit coincides with the earliest occupation of the hamlet during Basketmaker III times.
A general view of plant use during the late occupation of Kenzie Dawn Hamlet is emerging. Juniperus wood was commonly carried into the hamlet for fuelwood. On occasion, wood of Artemisia, Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, Cercocarpus, Pinus, and Purshia were also burned in the hearths. During routine removal of hearth ash and debris, charcoal from all these types entered the midden. Leftover Zea cobs provided a tinder or fuel source from time to time.
The most frequently recovered reproductive parts include Physalis longifolia-type and cheno-am seeds. Assuming that these are food remains, it appears that the last occupants of Kenzie Dawn Hamlet harvested two resources that ripen in summer and remain available through the fall. The preservation of an Opuntia (prickly pear) seed and one Scirpus achene, two additional potential foods also available in late summer, supports this interpretation of seasonal use.
There appear to be no major distinctions between the plant remains recovered in Structure 3 and the kiva, Structure 6. Similar fuelwood and food records have preserved in both these structures and in the midden. The occupants of these two structures appear to have been eating similar foods and burning similar woods in their hearths.
Shorlene's Site (5MT3918)
A total of 14 flotation samples (Table 16.6) and some visible macrofossils make up the plant record discussed here. Excavators sampled fill and hearth deposits in a masonry-lined kiva, Structure 1, and took a series of samples from a midden impacted by looting and a recent fire. Although most of the pottery in the midden is Pueblo III, the midden also contains material from an earlier Basketmaker III habitation component, so the plant remains must also be considered mixed to some degree (Chapter 6).
Plant remains from Shorlene's Site consist mainly of charcoal of trees and shrubs, although some evidence of food use has also preserved. The Juniperus, Pinus, and Purshia charcoal in the fill of the kiva probably accumulated after the roof was dismantled prehistorically.
Three flotation samples from ash in the kiva hearth contained Pinus (3/3), Purshia (3/3), Juniperus (2/3), Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (1/3), Artemisia (2/3), and Cercocarpus (1/3) charcoal, all interpreted as fuelwood. The presence of a Cercocarpus/Artemisia axillary bud and Zea mays cupules are most simply explained as fuel use as well.
Evidence of food preparation in Structure 1 includes cheno-am seeds, Opuntia (prickly pear) seeds, and Gramineae caryopses in two samples each. A single Portulaca retusa-type seed and a Zea mays kernel are also probably the remains of food preparation or use in this structure.
Eight separate flotation samples from the midden document the frequency of Juniperus (7/8) and Pinus (7/8) charcoal, as well as Pinus-type bark scales (2/8) and Juniperus osteosperma-type twig/scale leaf parts (2/8). Zea cupules (4/8), Purshia charcoal (3/8), Populus/Salix (1/8), and an unknown charcoal type (1/8) complete the list of potential fuels. The only possible food to preserve in the midden was a single cheno-am seed. No charred plant materials were recovered from a midden upper control sample. Only Juniperus and Pinus-type charcoal preserved in a single courtyard sample.
A total of 27 charred Zea cob fragments hand-picked out of a cylindrical pit (in the inner periphery sampling stratum) could have entered the pit after use, since the fragments were recovered near the top of the pit. Other charred macrofossils from Shorlene's Site include limited remains of Juniperus-type seeds, fruit, and fruit coat fragments, probably of the local Juniperus osteosperma.
In review, the plant remains from Shorlene's Site suggest that the occupants were involved in both agricultural efforts and wild plant fuel and food use. Fuel needs were routinely met by Juniperus, Pinus, and local Purshia shrubs, and to a limited extent by Artemisia, Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, Populus/Salix, and Cercocarpus. Nearness to agricultural fields is implied by the presence of charred Zea mays cobs and cupules. People would have had to travel some distance to a more mesic habitat to acquire the Populus/Salix wood, and for that reason it may indicate a material culture need other than fuelwood. The midden, whose items potentially represent both the Basketmaker III and Pueblo III periods, retained nothing but likely fuel remains, with the exception of a single cheno-am seed. The major evidence for food preparation and/or use preserved in the hearth ash of the kiva, from which cheno-am seeds, Opuntia (prickly pear) seeds, and Gramineae caryopses were recovered. A Portulaca seed and a Zea mays kernel complete the list of potential foods. Generally, the fruits/seeds of these taxa would not be ready for harvesting until sometime during the late summer and beyond.
Troy's Tower (5MT3951)
Troy's Tower consists of a tower, a kiva, two large pit features, and a small midden. Unlike the other tested sites, it has no known surface rooms (Chapter 7). Troy's Tower has three separate examples of thermal feature fill--the tower hearth, the kiva hearth, and a roasting pit. A modern fire burned over the entire site. The following report is based on a total of 15 flotation samples (Table 16.7), plus some well-preserved Zea kernel and Juniperus macrofossils.
Two flotation samples from the basin-shaped hearth in the tower retained a wide variety of potential fuels and reproductive parts. Charcoal of Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, Artemisia, Juniperus, Pinus, and Purshia, along with Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs, a Cercocarpus/Artemisia-type axillary bud, and Zea cupules are probably all remains of ancient fuels.
A great diversity of reproductive parts preserved in the tower hearth ash, including cheno-am (2/2), Opuntia-type (prickly pear) (2/2), and Physalis longifolia-type seeds (2/2), along with a Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type seed, a Euphorbia glyptosperma-type seed, a Gramineae-type caryopsis, a Mentzelia albicaulis-type seed, a Phaseolus vulgaris-type cotyledon, a Plantago-type seed, a Portulaca retusa-type seed, and Zea kernel embryos and fragments. This assemblage is unusual, since Cycloloma, Euphorbia, Mentzelia, and Plantago seeds were rarely recovered at other sites in the Sand Canyon locality, and since only two flotation samples were examined.
The hearth and floor ash also contained many types of charcoal, including Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, Artemisia, Juniperus, Pinus, Purshia, Cercocarpus, and Ephedra. These woods, along with a Cercocarpus/Artemisia axillary bud, Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs, termite fecal pellets (carried inside branches brought into the tower), Zea cupules, and Pinus-type bark scales probably all signal fuel requirements. The presence of Artemisia tridentata-type flowering parts suggests that sage plants were acquired in the late summer or early fall, when they are known to flower in the region. A single upper control flotation sample (tower fill) from the wall fall immediately above the floor preserved only Juniperus and Pinus-type charcoal.
The record of charred reproductive parts from the tower could represent prehistoric food gathering and use. Cheno-am seeds and Physalis longifolia-type seeds have been interpreted as food residue at other sites described in this report. However, the presence of a charred Triticum (domestic wheat) grain in the floor ash suggests that debris from historic burning somehow became mixed into the tower deposits. A historic fire probably burned the grain, and some disturbance (possibly excavation) then mixed the modern wheat grain in with prehistorically burned materials. This instance of historic contamination requires the cautionary note that some of the other burned items may also be historic.
The kiva at this site, connected to the tower by a tunnel, retained very little in the way of charred plant remains. Two flotation samples from the hearth ash preserved only Pinus charcoal, a bark scale, and Juniperus charcoal. A third flotation sample (upper control) had no identifiable parts. Food preparation is not indicated by these samples.
Excavators consider a large, slightly bell-shaped pit (Structure 3) containing burned debris to have once been a roasting pit. Eight flotation samples were taken in and around this thermal feature--five samples from the fill, one floor scrape sample, one upper control sample, and one lower control sample.
The five flotation samples from ash inside the roasting pit preserved a variety of plant remains that probably derive from general fuel and other nonfood uses. These include Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (1/5), Artemisia (2/5), Juniperus (3/5), Pinus (5/5), and Purshia (3/5) charcoal, Pinus bark scales, Juniperus osteosperma twigs, and Zea cupules. One of these five samples, from below the stone slabs and just above the floor of the pit, contained many of the same taxa already listed (Artemisia, Juniperus, Pinus, and Purshia charcoal, Artemisia tridentata-type flower buds and leaves, Cercocarpus/Artemisia axillary buds, Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs, Pinus bark scales, and Zea cupules). A floor scrape retained Artemisia and Purshia charcoal, plus Artemisia-type leaf fragments.
Cheno-am seeds preserved in most of the roasting pit ash samples. Chenopodium and Amaranthus plants offer mature seeds as food and provide fleshy, moist foliage for generating steam in roasting activities. Other reproductive parts with more limited distribution in the ash include Scirpus-type and other Cyperaceae achenes, Gramineae caryopses, Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seeds, a Capparaceae seed, a Physalis longifolia-type seed, a Portulaca retusa-type seed, and an unknown seed type. Many of these may be leftover from food use. A cheno-am seed and a Gramineae caryopsis preserved in the floor scrape. Only Juniperus charcoal was recovered in the upper control immediately above the pit, and nothing was identified from the subfloor lower control.
A single sample from the main site midden retained a meager plant record, possibly because the deposits are subject to exposed conditions. The bulk of the items recovered (Juniperus charcoal, Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs, Pinus edulis needle fragment, unknown seed type) most likely are the remains of general fuel.
Archaeologists recovered a number of macrofossils as they excavated, often from strata that consisted of a mixture of postabandonment and cultural fill. These included a number of Zea flint kernels, Juniperus fruit and seeds, and a Pinus-type charred wooden artifact that was shaped and smoothed.
In overview, the Puebloans who used the tower at this site had access to domesticated Zea and Phaseolus vulgaris and a wide variety of native plants, many of which would be ripe in the late summer through fall. The recovery of Cycloloma, Euphorbia, Mentzelia, and Plantago seeds in the tower hearth document rare occurrences of these taxa in sites in the Sand Canyon locality. The tower fuel needs were satisfied by no less than seven separate tree and shrub wood types, including rarely recovered Ephedra. The occasional preservation of Zea cupules most likely documents fuel use of leftover cobs. The presence of burned Artemisia tridentata flowering parts, known to form today in early fall in the locality, represents the same general time of harvest as the bulk of the reproductive parts just discussed.
By contrast, the nearby (connected) kiva preserved only limited evidence of fuel use and no reproductive parts. No food preparation or use activities are implied in this location. It is unknown to what extent preservation factors, or lowered sampling level, are responsible for this difference.
An assumed roasting pit preserved a nearly identical fuel record as the tower hearth, along with some of the same reproductive parts. Similar activities are implied here.
Lester's Site (5MT10246)
The talus-slope site known as Lester's Site dates to the late A.D. 1200s (Chapter 8), with an occupation contemporaneous with that of nearby Sand Canyon Pueblo. Eighteen flotation samples (Table 16.8) and a small number of macrofossils compose the database for this examination.
The hearth in a burned kiva, Structure 1, had ash representing an early episode of use prior to remodeling, as well as ash from the time of last use. During the early use of the hearth, occupants burned Juniperus, Pinus, and Prunus/Rosa-type wood. At last use, people added Chrysothamnus, Juniperus, and Populus/Salix wood, plus Zea cobs. Juniper wood and Pinus-type wood with bark scales were recovered in all three flotation samples examined from this thermal feature. The only reproductive parts recovered (Capparraceae seed fragments, a Gramineae caryopsis, and Opuntia [prickly pear] seed fragments) were associated with final use and likely are the remains of food preparation/consumption. No charred plant material was identified in an upper control sample in sand that covered the burned roof in this structure, and only Juniperus charcoal preserved in the burned roof stratum itself.
Excavators took two flotation samples from hearth ash in another kiva, Structure 3, assumed to be contemporaneous with the one just described. With the exception of a single Zea kernel, all remains identified are considered to derive from fuelwood use. Three charcoal types (Artemisia, Juniperus, and Pinus) occurred in both samples, and Populus/Salix-type preserved in one. A Pinus edulis-type cone scale, Pinus-type bark scales, and a Juniperus osteosperma-type scale leaf were probably incidentally carried in on fuelwood branches.
The main site midden is moving down the talus slope due to gravity, and has been mixed in part because of rodent activity. However, flotation samples were taken from contexts which were interpreted as being in-place and undisturbed. Ten flotation samples representing vertical and horizontal coverage of the midden reveal that the main items preserved are pieces of charred Juniperus (9/10) and Pinus (7/10) charcoal, along with Pinus-type bark scales (3/10). Cercocarpus (1/10), Artemisia (2/10), and Populus/Salix-type (1/10) charcoal were each recovered in limited contexts. Presence of Zea cupules in half of the samples examined reveals common use of the cobs as fuel and implies that the agricultural fields were close enough to the site for cobs to have been routinely carried into the kivas. Elsewhere in the site, archaeologists collected two Zea cob fragments and some unknown organic material from around a retaining wall/associated midden.
Reproductive parts from Lester's midden include Physalis longifolia-type seeds (3/10), cheno-am seeds (2/10), an Echinocereus-type seed (1/10), and an Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seed (1/10). They would all be available in late summer through the fall, and the first two are weedy opportunists that prefer disturbed habitats. Nothing was recovered in a lower control sample for the midden.
In summary, the macrobotanical record from Lester's Site includes plants that could have been used for fuel and food. Early deposits in Structure 1 preserved only fuel remains, whereas items identified from a later hearth use included both fuels and foods. Another kiva, Structure 3, retained fuelwood and a Zea kernel. The site midden record essentially reflects the kiva records, with the repeated recovery of Zea parts suggesting frequent use of cobs as fuel. Agricultural fields were likely nearby, as burned cobs (leftover fuel) frequently made their way into the midden. Populus/Salix wood must have grown nearby in places kept damp by springs. The occupants of Lester's Site ate Zea and a number of native resources, some of them from disturbed habitats such as agricultural fields. The seasonality of harvesting suggested by the plant remains that preserved includes late summer through fall.
Lookout House (5MT10459)
Like Lester's, Lookout House is another talus-slope site near Sand Canyon Pueblo, probably dating to the mid- to late A.D. 1200s (Chapter 9). Twelve flotation samples were taken from the following contexts: a masonry-lined kiva (Structure 1), the main site midden, and a burial pit (Table 16.9). A small number of macrofossils provide additional insight into the plant resources used at this location.
Excavators took two hearth samples and an upper control within Structure 1. The hearth preserved only evidence of fuelwood in the form of charred Juniperus, Pinus, Purshia, Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, and Cercocarpus wood. Pinus-type bark scales and Zea cupules are probably hearth fuels as well. No recognizable plant parts were identified in the upper control sample.
Two out of eight midden flotation samples had nothing identifiable. As in the kiva hearth samples, the remaining midden samples preserved a record of diverse fuel use in the form of Juniperus charcoal (6/8) and Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs (2/8); Pinus charcoal (5/8), Pinus bark scales (5/8), and a Pinus edulis-type needle fragment (1/8); Zea cupules (4/8); and charcoal of Artemisia (3/8), Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (2/8), Quercus (1/8), Chrysothamnus (1/8), Populus/Salix (1/8), Cercocarpus (1/8), and Purshia (1/8). Archaeologists collected some Zea cob fragments and three 8-row Zea cob segments from midden and cultural fill.
Access to agricultural products is implied not only by the Zea cupules, which suggest use of leftover cobs, but also by the Zea kernel fragments in two of the flotation samples and by limited Zea macrofossils hand-collected by excavators. Cheno-am and Physalis longifolia-type seeds, each in two of the eight samples, may have been easily gathered in open habitats such as farm fields, disturbed middens, or along pathways. These seeds, plus some Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seeds in the midden, probably represent ancient food use.
Many of the same charcoal types and related plant parts that are interpreted as leftover fuels in the midden, along with a few reproductive parts, were also recovered from a burial pit. The complementarity of this evidence and the location of the burial pit in the midden both suggest that the sampled fill is refuse.
Generally, the plant remains that have been identified from Lookout House reveal a group somewhat reliant on Zea, which probably grew nearby. A variety of trees and shrubs provided fuel. Foods included prickly pear fruit and plants, such as cheno-ams and Physalis, that could opportunistically invade open habitats. All would be available by late summer. The last fire(s) in the kiva hearth may have been primarily for warmth, as no reproductive plant parts were recovered.
Stanton's Site (5MT10508)
The habitation site known as Stanton's Site is located on a talus slope and dates to approximately the mid- to late A.D. 1200s (Chapter 10). The following discussion is based on 15 flotation samples (Table 16.10) primarily from kiva hearth ash and midden debris. A number of Zea cob segments/fragments and domesticated bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) macrofossils collected by excavators are also discussed here.
A kiva, Structure 2, preserved a record of fuel use and some reproductive parts. Two flotation samples from the hearth ash contained Juniperus charcoal (2/2), twigs (2/2), and a scale leaf (1/2), Pinus-type bark scales (2/2) and Pinus charcoal (1/2), and Zea cupules (2/2) and a cob fragment. All could derive from ancient cooking or heating needs. The recovery of Physalis longifolia-type seeds in both samples, along with a Gramineae caryopsis, may be the leftovers of the last items prepared there as food. A single upper control sample from an unburned roof stratum contained only Juniperus charcoal, intermixed with debris that somehow entered the structure after its abandonment.
Excavators took 12 flotation samples in three separate columns from the site midden, thought by its depth to represent a fairly long period of occupation. Although mixing by rodents is apparent, there seems to have been no historic looting. The charcoal types that preserved are primarily Juniperus (12/12) and Pinus (12/12), but also include Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (3/12), Populus/Salix (2/12), Artemisia (1/12), and Purshia (1/12). Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs (7/12), Pinus-type bark scales (7/12), and Pinus edulis-type needle fragments (4/12) most likely represent fuel use as well. The presence of Zea cupules in all 12 samples, coupled with a Zea stalk fragment (1/12) and some Zea cob fragments (1/12), suggests frequent access to a local resource. This interpretation is supported by the macrofossils collected in the midden, which included Zea cob fragments in 10 separate loci, some kernel fragments, and a shank segment.
The reproductive plant parts that preserved in the midden are probably burned food. These include Physalis longifolia-type seeds (7/12), cheno-am seeds (6/12), Zea kernel fragments (3/12), and Stipa florets (2/12). A number of Phaseolus vulgaris-type cotyledons were collected as macrofossils from at least four separate proveniences in the midden, as were a limited number of Juniperus seeds and fruits.
In overview, the occupants of Stanton's Site frequently burned Juniperus and Pinus-type wood in their hearths, incidentally including other bark and needle/twig parts. They also had easy access to leftover Zea cobs as a fuel source, which suggests that at least some agricultural fields were located fairly close to the site. They also ate domesticated Phaseolus vulgaris beans. The common recovery of Physalis longifolia-type and cheno-am seeds reveals reliance on weedy native plants available by the late summer. The presence of Stipa, which is available in late spring/early summer, suggests that the site was occupied in the earlier cool season as well. The timing of Zea planting would occur just as the Stipa caryopses were ripening.
Catherine's Site (5MT3967)
Catherine's Site sits on a bench or terrace immediately downslope from Stanton's Site and is considered to date primarily to the mid-A.D. 1200s (Chapter 11). Fifteen flotation samples from the kiva hearth and a deep midden (Table 16.11), together with limited Zea cob fragments recognized by archaeologists during excavation, form the prehistoric plant database for this site.
Three flotation samples taken from the Structure 2 (kiva) hearth reveal hearth fuel choice and food needs. Juniperus (3/3) and Pinus (2/3) wood (sometimes with bark scales still on) were common fuels; Amelanchier/Peraphyllum and Artemisia were used on occasion. The Monocotyledon tissue may be Yucca stems or Zea stalks. Only the recovery of Zea kernel fragments and a Physalis seed hint at foods prepared or eaten in the vicinity of the kiva hearth.
The midden, although mixed in places by both rodents and looting, was well preserved and deep. Twelve flotation samples were taken from two vertical columns and from a number of horizontal loci. Trees, shrubs, and leftover Zea cobs all provided fuel. The charcoal identified from the 12 midden samples includes Juniperus (12/12), Pinus (7/12), Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (4/12), Artemisia (primarily Artemisia tridentata) (2/12), Populus/Salix (2/12), Ephedra (2/12), Cercocarpus (1/12), Purshia (1/12), and Fraxinus anomala-type (1/12). The suite of fuels also included Pinus-type bark scales (3/12), a Pinus-type cone scale (1/12), Juniperus osteosperma-type twigs (2/12), and Zea cupules (9/12) and cob fragments (2/12). Archaeologists collected a number of Zea cob fragments as macrofossils from the midden and from other mixed postabandonment/cultural fill strata; these included 8-row cobs (N = 3), 10-row cobs (N = 8), and a single 12-row cob.
A Phaseolus vulgaris-type cotyledon fragment is direct evidence of the availability of a domestic resource, and Zea use is implied by the presence of cobs and cob parts. Wild plant harvests for food probably included cheno-am seeds (6/12), Opuntia-type (prickly pear) fruit (2/12), some type of unknown seed (2/12), plus occasional use of Mentzelia albicaulis-type seeds, Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type seeds, Scirpus-type achenes, and Gramineae caryopses. The single occurrence of a Nicotiana-type seed may derive from smoking native tobacco. Archaeologists collected Zea cob fragments as macrofossils from the midden. Elsewhere, in a mixed deposit of postabandonment and cultural debris, they also recovered a Zea cob fragment and a Juniperus seed fragment.
To summarize, the Puebloans at Catherine's Site had access to a variety of fuels, including trees, shrubs, and leftover Zea cobs. They ate domesticated Phaseolus and probably grew Zea nearby. Seeds of eight different native plant resources, including Nicotiana, entered the midden in a charred condition. Although these may primarily represent food needs, the Nicotiana-type seed may indicate the smoking of this plant by the site inhabitants.
Saddlehorn Hamlet (5MT262)
The cliff-dwelling/talus-slope site of Saddlehorn Hamlet likely dates to sometime after A.D. 1250 (Chapter 12). A total of 15 flotation samples (Table 16.12) and a limited number of Zea macrofossils provide the data for this report. Excavators sampled fill in the hearth of a burned kiva (Structure 1) and in the site midden.
Two flotation samples from the kiva hearth preserved evidence of fuel, including Juniperus (2/2) and Pinus (2/2) charcoal, Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (1/2) and Populus/Salix (1/2) charcoal, and a Pinus-type bark scale (1/2). Limited numbers of Zea mays kernel fragments and Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seed fragments probably indicate food preparation or use. Four 10-row Zea cob segments were collected as macrofossils, as were a number of Zea flour kernels thought to have been fused to one another when still on the cob. An upper control flotation sample from the burned roof above the floor contained only Juniperus charcoal, and excavators also collected Juniperus charcoal from this stratum as a macrofossil sample.
The site midden at Saddlehorn Hamlet has been disturbed through rodent activity and historic vandalism, resulting in the homogenization of individual layers. The plant part that dominates the 11 flotation samples is Juniperus charcoal (11/11). Other likely remains of fuel include a Zea cob fragment and Zea cupules (5/11), Purshia-type charcoal (4/11), Pinus-type charcoal (3/11) and bark scales (2/11), Juniperus osteosperma-type twig fragments (2/11), and Cercocarpus (2/11), Artemisia (1/11), and Fraxinus anomala-type (1/11) charcoal. A single flotation sample retained possible food evidence in the form of a Malvaceae-type seed, a Stipa-type floret, and a Phaseolus vulgaris-type cotyledon fragment. Excavators collected a single 8-row Zea cob segment and a Zea cob fragment in the midden. An upper control sample from postabandonment deposits overlying the midden refuse contained only Juniperus and Fraxinus anomala-type charcoal.
The predominant plant record from Saddlehorn Hamlet is of ancient fuel needs. Although Juniperus wood predominates in the hearth and midden records, Pinus wood and a variety of other resources were burned. People had access to domesticated Zea and Phaseolus vulgaris. They also carried in Stipa-type florets, Opuntia-type (prickly pear) fruit, and Malvaceae-type seeds. The seasonality of these native reproductive parts spans the late spring/early summer through fall.
Mad Dog Tower (5MT181)
Mad Dog Tower, a tower-kiva site with a single surface room, was occupied in the A.D. 1200s (Chapter 13). The shallow depth of the midden could indicate a short occupation span, use of the site by only a few individuals, or specialized but only occasional use. The site has probably been impacted by looters for many decades. Six flotation samples hint at plants carried into Mad Dog Tower (Table 16.13). No larger macrofossils were recognized by archaeologists during excavation.
The kiva (Structure 2) hearth preserved Juniperus and Pinus-type charcoal in two flotation samples, along with a Pinus-type bark scale, a Pinus edulis-type needle fragment, and Cercocarpus charcoal. No identifiable reproductive parts were recovered. An upper control flotation sample from the unburned roof contained Juniperus charcoal and an unknown seed, probably indicative of strata mixing. Archaeologists collected some unidentified vitrified organic material from the roof fall layer. The only recognizable plant part that preserved in three midden samples was Juniperus charcoal (1/3).
The plant record from Mad Dog Tower is limited to the remains of burned fuel. Occupants used both Juniperus and Pinus-type wood, plus Cercocarpus branches. There are no hints in this record as to the seasonality of use. If this archaeobotanical record actually reflects a cultural pattern, and is not due to sampling, preservation, or historic disturbance, the site appears to have experienced limited or specialized use by the Puebloans that did not include such daily tasks as food preparation.
Castle Rock Pueblo (5MT1825)
Castle Rock Pueblo is a medium-size site dating to the mid- to late A.D. 1200s (Chapter 14). Five flotation samples from three separate structures and eight samples from various midden deposits across the site provide the data for this report (Table 16.14). A number of macrofossils supplement the flotation record.
Structure 108, of unknown type, has a floor covered with ash and a formal hearth. Two flotation samples from the hearth contained Zea cupules, probably the remains of fuel use of the cobs, along with Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, Artemisia, and Juniperus-type charcoal. No reproductive parts were identified in flotation samples, although excavators did recover some Zea cob fragment and kernel macrofossil remains.
A kiva, Structure 302, preserved a moderate diversity of fuel and food remains. Two flotation samples from the hearth retained Atriplex (2/2), Ephedra (2/2), Artemisia (1/2), Chrysothamnus (1/2), and Juniperus-type (1/2) charcoal, plus a Juniperus osteosperma-type twig. Reproductive parts identified include cheno-am seeds (2/2), a Zea kernel fragment, Stipa caryopsis and floret fragments, Mentzelia albicaulis-type seeds, and an unknown seed.
A circular tower (Structure 401) preserved both fuels and potential foods in a single flotation sample from a fire pit that had been expediently constructed into the fallen roof stratum. Fuels are represented by Atriplex, Ephedra, Pinus, Purshia, and an unknown charcoal type, plus a Juniperus osteosperma-type twig. Foods include Stipa caryopses and florets, a cheno-am seed, a Mentzelia albicaulis-type seed, a Malvaceae seed, and a Gramineae caryopsis.
Midden deposits from a number of locations at Castle Rock Pueblo are well preserved, although possibly some looting has mixed material among strata. The eight midden flotation samples have preserved a diverse fuel record, including Juniperus (8/8), Pinus (8/8), Atriplex (3/8), Purshia (3/8), Amelanchier/Peraphyllum (2/8), Artemisia (1/8), Populus/Salix (1/8), and unknown (1/8) charcoal, along with Zea cupules (7/8), Pinus-type bark scales (3/8), and a Juniperus osteosperma-type twig (1/8). Excavators hand-collected 28 Zea cob segments from various midden levels. This small population is composed of 8-row cobs (N = 6), 10-row cobs (N = 16), 12-row cobs (N = 5), and a single 14-row cob. Row number is primarily determined by genetic makeup, though severe growing conditions are said to cause an overall reduction in mean row number and ear size (Emerson and Smith 1950). The Castle Rock cobs are too degraded to confidently attach a maize varietal name.
The reproductive plant parts recovered from the midden probably are the remains of ancient food. Zea kernel fragments and cheno-am seeds were each recovered in four flotation samples, and Opuntia-type (prickly pear) seeds were identified in three samples. One Plantago seed, one Mentzelia albicaulis-type seed, and a single Gramineae caryopsis were also recovered from the midden samples. Macrofossils hand-collected from the midden by excavators include Zea cob fragments, a Pinus ponderosa-type cone scale, and a few Zea kernels with flour endosperm. Macrofossils recovered by archaeologists in other areas of Castle Rock Pueblo include Zea cob fragments from Structures 103, 104, and 107; the cob remains in Structure 104 were on the bench of the kiva.
An overall view of the plant remains from Castle Rock Pueblo suggests diverse fuel use, with a focus on Juniperus and Pinus wood and attached parts. Zea cobs often supplemented fires, leaving segments, fragments, and cupules as evidence. The record of food use is also fairly diverse. Occupants had access to Zea kernels and also carried in cheno-am seeds, Opuntia-type (prickly pear) fruit, Mentzelia albicaulis seeds, Stipa hymenoides caryopses/florets, a Malvaceae seed, a Plantago seed, and other Gramineae caryopses. These resources are differentially available in the late spring (Stipa), through the summer, and into the fall.
A comparison of the three structures analyzed reveals that Structure 108 preserved only fuels. The kiva, Structure 302, and the circular tower, Structure 401, each contained both fuel and food remains. The midden deposits reflected the overall diversity of fuels and foods identified in the three structures.
Discussion
Geographic Comparisons
Upper Sand Canyon Community, Mesa-Top Sites
All six upper Sand Canyon mesa-top sites (G and G Hamlet, Lillian's Site, Roy's Ruin, Kenzie Dawn Hamlet, Shorlene's Site, and Troy's Tower) contained evidence of Zea mays and occasionally Phaseolus vulgaris, as well as a wide variety of wild plant resources. The recovery of Zea cupules, cob fragments, segments, and/or stalk parts from each of these sites implies that fields were relatively near dwellings, if one assumes that people would not carry secondary waste products long distances. Corn may have been transported and stored as ears, that is "on the cob," though it is less likely that stalk parts would be brought into dwellings, unless the fields were relatively nearby. The common occurrence of weedy taxa (cheno-ams, Physalis, Portulaca) in hearths and middens reinforces this interpretation, as such plants likely flourished in disturbed agricultural fields.
Plant remains from the kiva hearths at G and G Hamlet, Lillian's, Kenzie Dawn, and Shorlene's all suggest some level of food preparation. The primary evidence is the presence of reproductive plant parts that are also commonly recovered in the site middens and in nonkiva hearths. The kiva hearth at Troy's Tower preserved no evidence of food use. Rather, food preparation and perhaps other activities are implied by the variety of reproductive parts recovered from the tower hearth ash and from a roasting pit.
The majority of the charcoal types found in these mesa-top sites represent tree and shrub species that are available locally today and that were probably used routinely as fuel or in the manufacture of household goods or tools in ancient times. Most of the shrubs grow in relatively stable pinyon-juniper woodland or in well-established sagebrush habitat. Rabbitbrush, occurring often along modern roadways and indicating a preference for disturbed habitats, occurs in very low amounts. The recovery of Populus/Salix-type charcoal in limited amounts from G and G Hamlet, Roy's, and Shorlene's suggests at least short trips to mesic habitats along talus slopes, at springs, or in nearby Rock and Goodman Canyons. People may have gathered these riparian types to satisfy some specific material culture requirements, rather than to use them routinely as fuel.
The reproductive plant parts recovered from the mesa-top sites indicate primarily summer and fall occupation, although occupation during other seasons cannot be ruled out (macrobotanical remains rarely converge in a way that strongly suggests winter occupation [Adams and Bohrer 1998]). Only Lillian's Site, with preserved fragments of Rhus aromatica-type seeds, suggests occupation of the area in late spring or early summer. Seasonality of last use is suggested by at least two of the mesa-top site thermal features. Artemisia tridentata-type flowering heads, in a stage of development currently observed in late summer/early fall, were recovered from the kiva hearth at Lillian's and in the tower floor ash at Troy's Tower.
Some unusual plant records are documented for the mesa-top sites. Mentzelia albicaulis-type seeds, Plantago seeds, Cycloloma seeds, and Euphorbia glyptosperma-type seeds--all extremely rare in Sand Canyon locality sites--were recovered from the tower hearth ash at Troy's Tower. Of these four rare taxa, only Plantago and Mentzelia albicaulis plants have been found in the Sand Canyon locality during modern reconnaissance work. It is difficult to judge if the other taxa were more locally abundant in ancient times or if they represent special acquisitions. Troy's Tower seems unique not only because of the rare taxa preserved at the site, but also because of the wide diversity of reproductive parts (N = 11) recovered in the tower hearth ash. The interpretation of this site by archaeologists as a site with a possible special function seems supported by the plant record. Capparaceae-type (Cleome/Polanisia) seeds have been identified in two of the mesa-top sites (Lillian's and Troy's), and its pollen preserved in both upper and lower Sand Canyon sites (see Chapter 17). These plants are currently part of the natural flora of the lower Sand Canyon area, but they might also have been intentionally sown in upland, water-enhanced agricultural fields.
Upper Sand Canyon Community, Talus-Slope and Bench Sites
Three talus-slope sites (Lester's Site, Lookout House, and Stanton's Site) and one bench site (Catherine's Site) all preserved agricultural evidence in the form of Zea mays parts such as cupules, cob fragments, and stalk segments. As with the mesa-top sites, the presence of these secondary by-products of corn production suggests that the fields were fairly close to the dwellings. This is supported by the common occurrence of cheno-am and Physalis-type seeds. Limited Phaseolus vulgaris remains were recovered from Stanton's Site, amplifying the agricultural record. Again, as with the mesa-top sites, the occurrence of wild plant resources in these four sites attests to a subsistence regime that included both agricultural efforts and wild plant harvesting.
With one exception, the kiva hearths at all of these sites contained evidence that could derive from food preparation or use. No reproductive parts were recognized in the hearth debris from the kiva at Lookout House, but potential food products were present in the midden and in a burial pit.
As with the mesa-top sites, the varied charcoal types present in the hearths and middens are all from species currently available in the area. Acquisition of Populus/Salix wood by Lester's and Stanton's inhabitants would only have required very short trips into mesic locales, as would the acquisition of Fraxinus anomala-type wood by the occupants of Catherine's Site.
Seasonality expressed by the plant remains is primarily confined to the summer through fall, although this does not preclude occupation during other seasons. In addition, occupants of Stanton's appear to have been in residence at least during late spring/early summer, when Stipa hymenoides is known to ripen today.
Catherine's Site contained a few rare taxa. Two of these, Mentzelia albicaulis and Cycloloma atriplicifolium, were also present in the tower hearth at Troy's Tower, and Cycloloma preserved under a stone slab on a floor at Roy's Ruin. These records are sufficiently sparse to be noteworthy. The presence of a single Nicotiana seed from the Catherine's Site midden is the only direct evidence of prehistoric tobacco use in the Sand Canyon locality to date. Indirect evidence exists in the form of a single reedgrass "cigarette" and the debris of cigarette manufacture at nearby Sand Canyon Pueblo (K. Adams 1989).
Lower Sand Canyon Community Sites
In lower Sand Canyon, Saddlehorn Hamlet and Castle Rock Pueblo have evidence of both agricultural activities and wild resource use. At both these sites, access to fields is suggested by the presence of Zea mays cupule and cob parts. Phaseolus vulgaris remains were recovered at Saddlehorn.
The kiva hearth at Saddlehorn contained reproductive plant parts that could have derived from food preparation or use. One kiva, Structure 302, and one tower fire pit at Castle Rock Pueblo also contained reproductive parts suggestive of food use. However, a kiva hearth in Structure 108 at Castle Rock may have primarily been the locus for heating or some activity other than a culinary one during its last use(s). No evidence of food use was identified in the structure hearth at Mad Dog Tower.
Archaeologists recovered a variety of charred remains that most likely represent fuels and leftover debris of artifact manufacture. These remains include Zea cobs, Juniperus and Pinus wood, and at least eight additional woody types. Mesic species such as Populus/Salix and Fraxinus anomala-type were also carried in occasionally. A Pinus ponderosa-type cone scale from Castle Rock is a unique occurrence; today this species has been observed in the higher elevations of nearby Ute Mountain, although a single, huge ponderosa pine also grows about 1 km up the Sand Canyon drainage from Castle Rock Pueblo.
The bulk of the plant remains from the lower Sand Canyon sites are either mute regarding season of acquisition or represent summer and fall seasons. The presence of Stipa hymenoides parts in both Saddlehorn and Castle Rock deposits suggests some late spring/early summer use of the area.
Unusual plant patterning in the lower Sand Canyon sites includes the presence of Mentzelia albicaulis-type and Plantago-type seed remains in Castle Rock deposits. Also, the lack of any evidence of food preparation/use at Mad Dog Tower is noteworthy, but the small number of flotation samples analyzed for this site (N = 6) may partly explain this pattern.
Upper and Lower Sand Canyon Community Comparisons
Occupants of all the tested sites, with the possible exception of Mad Dog Tower in lower Sand Canyon, appear to have practiced a diverse subsistence regime that relied on both domestic and wild plant resources. The recovery of Zea mays cupules, cob segments/fragments, and stalk parts suggests that agricultural fields were located close enough to the sites that the leftover debris of agriculture was routinely carried in and burned in the hearths. This explanation is reinforced by the repeated occurrence of weedy taxa (cheno-ams, Physalis) that prefer the disturbed ground that agricultural fields would provide in abundance.
Activities in most tested-site kivas seem to have included food preparation, as suggested by the presence of reproductive parts that routinely occur elsewhere in site middens and nonkiva hearths. However, charcoal predominated in the last fire(s) in kiva hearths at Troy's Tower, Lookout House, and Castle Rock (Structure 108), and in a structure hearth at Mad Dog Tower, suggesting that the last fires in these locations did not involve food preparation.
The seasonality information available in the plant record suggests presence in all areas during the summer and fall. A few sites (Lillian's, Stanton's, Saddlehorn, and Castle Rock) had Rhus and Stipa remains, which suggests late spring/early summer harvesting efforts as well. Since Zea mays needs to be planted fairly early in the agricultural season (May), individuals were probably in the area during this time. Season of last use for two thermal features may have been late summer/early fall, when Artemisia tridentata flowering heads in an early stage of development were put into the kiva hearth at Lillian's and the tower hearth at Troy's Tower.
The tested sites have preserved a number of noteworthy plant records. Both Troy's Tower and Catherine's Site may have been the setting for specialized activities. Troy's Tower has the highest diversity of reproductive parts (N = 16), which includes seeds of four rarely occurring taxa (Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type, Euphorbia glyptosperma-type, Mentzelia albicaulis-type, and Plantago-type) in the tower hearth ash. Catherine's Site also has a high diversity of reproductive parts (N = 11), again including some rare taxa (Cycloloma atriplicifolium-type, Mentzelia albicaulis-type, and Nicotiana attenuata-type) in the midden. Of these rare taxa, only Plantago, Mentzelia albicaulis, and Nicotiana attenuata are known to grow in the area, but the inability to locate Cycloloma atriplicifolium and Euphorbia glyptosperma may be due in part to historic land use.
Of the remaining tested sites, Castle Rock Pueblo and Lillian's Site each preserved nine reproductive parts, which included the rarely occurring Mentzelia albicaulis-type and Plantago-type seeds in Castle Rock midden debris. The remaining sites preserved an average of five reproductive parts each, in most cases all commonly occurring items. Mad Dog Tower is depauperate in plant remains except for charcoal.
Geographic patterns are revealed in the record of reproductive parts from all 13 tested sites. Looking first at the total of 183 flotation samples (Table 16.15), cheno-am and Physalis seeds occur more than any other seed type in upland sites. Cheno-am seeds are also present in lower Sand Canyon sites, but Physalis seeds are not. Groundcherry plants grow today in lower Sand Canyon, so inaccessibility may not explain this difference. When only thermal features likely to represent the last use(s) of features or structures are considered, reliance on both cheno-am and Physalis seeds by people who lived on the mesa top is strongly confirmed. Talus-slope and bench sites, however, preserved no cheno-am seeds in hearths, hinting that they were not part of the last meals eaten.
In most sites, other food resources were accidentally burned on occasion. These include Zea kernels, Opuntia seeds, and various grass (Gramineae) grains. Even less often people lost Mentzelia seeds and domesticated Phaseolus vulgaris beans. The smaller record of thermal features reveals some gaps in this pattern.
An additional 13 taxa were recovered in small amounts in one or two of the geographic settings. Noteworthy among these records is the presence of Capparaceae-type (Cleome/Polanisia) seeds from only upper Sand Canyon sites. Cleome currently grows in damp lower Sand Canyon drainages, but it might easily grow in upland agricultural fields if the seeds were scattered in locations being managed to receive additional moisture during the growing season.
When charcoal and other vegetative parts (twigs, needle fragments, bark) interpreted as by-products of ancient fuel use are examined geographically, some patterns emerge. Looking first at the entire suite of 183 flotation samples (Table 16.16), it becomes clear that Juniperus and Pinus branches/wood and leftover Zea cobs were highly favored as hearth resources by both upper and lower Sand Canyon groups. The four upland talus-slope/bench communities appear to have preferred pine fuel to a somewhat greater extent than did the mesa-top and lower Sand Canyon groups, even when one considers only the charcoal types that preserved in thermal features likely to represent the last use(s) of features or structures. The burning of discarded Zea parts also seems somewhat elevated in the talus-slope/bench sites when only thermal features are considered.
Other frequently burned woody materials in all locations include the shrubs Artemisia, Purshia, Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, and Cercocarpus. These are all members of well-established pinyon-juniper woodland, but they could also be found in fallow agricultural fields. Water-loving Populus/Salix trees were used consistently, which suggests that people had to walk at least short distances to canyon bottoms or springs, where these trees usually grow. Occasional burning of Ephedra is also documented in all three areas. The recovery of a Pinus ponderosa-type cone scale as a macrofossil from Castle Rock Pueblo suggests limited access to this higher-elevation species that grows on nearby Ute Mountain and to a very limited extent (a single tree) in the bottom of middle Sand Canyon.
Some differences in the use of these species emerge when one compares only material recovered from thermal features (Table 16.16). For example, the rate of recovery of Artemisia, Purshia, and Amelanchier/Peraphyllum charcoal in upland mesa-top hearths is double or triple the rate of recovery of these taxa in lowland Sand Canyon site hearths. With the exception of cottonwood and willow trees, these shrubby taxa may have been more accessible to the mesa-top occupants, perhaps because a long history of clearing for agricultural fields made them easily available in fallow fields. The lowlands and uplands are similar in the overall number of different charcoal types recovered from all hearths, ranging from 10 to 11.
Additional patterns of wood use are noteworthy. Atriplex appears only in lower Sand Canyon sites. Although it is a component shrub of the upland plant community, currently it often occurs there on archaeological sites. Its distribution in prehistory is unknown. Quercus was identified only in upper Sand Canyon mesa-top and talus-slope/bench sites. At present, oaks are a minor component of the general pinyon-juniper woodland, doing well in open, disturbed areas with shallow soil. Fraxinus anomala was identified in the two locations (talus-slope/bench, lower Sand Canyon) closer to drainage bottoms, where it is naturally found, as was Chrysothamnus.
Summary of Geographic Comparisons
In sum, the upper and lower Sand Canyon communities reveal a number of similarities. Both communities appear to have practiced agriculture locally, supplementing their diet with wild plant harvesting. Fields were located close enough to most habitations that Zea cob and stalk debris routinely entered hearths as waste or fuel, and field weeds were repeatedly harvested and prepared as food. Other similarities between the two communities include the fact that kiva hearths were the loci of food preparation/use, with a few exceptions (Troy's Tower, Lookout House, and Structure 108 at Castle Rock Pueblo). In both communities, Juniperus and Pinus-type wood were commonly used as fuel and as raw material for making artifacts, supplemented by Zea cobs and locally available shrubs. People occupied each area during similar seasons, minimally the late spring through fall, as evidenced by both agricultural scheduling requirements and the seasonal availability of the preserved wild plant remains.
Each community has sites that are unusual, both in diversity and/or uniqueness of some of the reproductive parts that preserved. These sites are Troy's Tower, Catherine's, and Lillian's in the upper Sand Canyon community and Castle Rock Pueblo in the lower Sand Canyon community. In contrast, Mad Dog Tower in lower Sand Canyon is unusual in its lack of preserved plant remains and does not appear to have been a locus for food preparation. Small sample size may play a part in this interpretation.
An analysis of flotation samples from hearths, middens, and other features reveals that weedy Chenopodium, Amaranthus, and Physalis plants were harvested regularly and prepared as food in the upper Sand Canyon area. Physalis was absent from the lower Sand Canyon sites, though the plants are known to grow there today. Other commonly gathered resources include Zea kernels, Opuntia fruit, and grass (Gramineae) grains, plus a variety of other taxa. Some member of the beeweed family (Capparaceae) was carried into upper Sand Canyon pueblos; although no beeweed plants have been observed in the immediate vicinity of these sites today, it is possible that they were encouraged in ancient upland fields.
Regarding fuel use, Juniperus was the most common fuelwood in all locations. Occupants of talus-slope/bench sites used more Pinus branches and discarded Zea parts than did occupants of the mesa-top or lower Sand Canyon communities. When only materials from the last fires in thermal features are considered, it is clear that mesa-top groups relied heavily on the wood of shrubby plants. Other minor differences in wood use occur, some explained by access, others unexplained.
Comparisons Through Time
Chronological comparisons of pre- and post-A.D. 1250 communities may reveal changes in plant use and/or the general environment over a period of time in the Sand Canyon locality. For these comparisons, native plants have been organized into two groups, as defined in Table 16.17. These groupings have implications for interpreting both the nature of the environment and the level of human effort required for their harvest. Roughly, Group 1 plants can be considered indicative of more disturbed environments--often providing higher caloric return for lower effort. Group 2 plants inhabit more established vegetation and require more work for a smaller harvest or a harvest that can require additional processing.
An examination of all flotation samples (N = 162) from upland and lowland sites, excluding the possible special-function sites of Troy's Tower and Mad Dog Tower, reveals some chronological patterning (Table 16.18). Looking first at Group 1 plants, it is clear that cheno-am seeds are constant through time in terms of resource use. Physalis seeds have a similar pattern in upland sites during both periods, unless one considers hearth debris only, in which case the earlier period has twice the recovery rate. Capparaceae and Cycloloma seeds occur in low amounts in upland sites, both early and late. The only Group 1 taxon restricted solely to the pre-A.D. 1250 period is Portulaca. However, a number of other resources are found only in post-A.D. 1250 deposits, including seeds or grains of Malvaceae, Mentzelia albicaulis, Nicotiana, Plantago, and Stipa hymenoides. In sum, pre-A.D. 1250 mesa-top inhabitants relied heavily on seeds of weedy cheno-ams, Physalis, and Portulaca. Post-A.D. 1250 communities relied less on these three taxa and included a notably wider variety of weedy species in their diet.
Looking next at the Group 2 plants, it is clear that Opuntia provided a consistently useful resource through time. Only pre-A.D. 1250 mesa-top contexts preserved evidence of Juniperus fruit/seeds and Rhus aromatica fruit, whereas only the post-A.D. 1250 contexts included Echinocereus seeds. Generally, there seems to have been a slight preference by the earlier mesa-top communities for the nonweedy Group 2 plants as compared with the later talus-slope/bench and lower Sand Canyon groups.
Finally, the use of the two domesticates Zea mays and Phaseolus vulgaris is reviewed. Pre-A.D. 1250 and post-A.D. 1250 upper Sand Canyon sites reveal very similar levels of maize recovery. Post-A.D. 1250 lower Sand Canyon sites have a maize record that is higher than the upland talus-slope/bench sites. Phaseolus preserved in low amounts only in the later sites.
A look at charcoal reflecting wood-burning needs through time also reveals some patterning (Table 16.19). Juniperus and Pinus branches and associated parts predominate during both periods, with Pinus being especially preferred by talus-slope/bench site inhabitants in the post-A.D. 1250 period. During both periods, wood of a number of shrubs was used and fueled some of the last fires in the hearths; the taxa identified include fragrant Artemisia, mesic-habitat Populus/Salix, a small amount of Quercus, and rose-family members Amelanchier/Peraphyllum, Cercocarpus, and Purshia. Ephedra, sought in limited amounts both before and after A.D. 1250, was used most heavily in post-A.D. 1250 lower Sand Canyon hearths. Leftover Zea cobs entered the hearths consistently, though there was a drop in their presence in hearths as opposed to in general site debris in the post-A.D. 1250 period. Also for the post-A.D. 1250 period, charcoal of Atriplex was recovered only in lower Sand Canyon.
Summary of Chronological Comparisons
The chronological patterns of plant remains in flotation samples from the tested sites suggest that the pre-A.D. 1250 inhabitants of the Sand Canyon locality focused on weedy species likely to flourish in disturbed places such as agricultural fields, pathways, and middens. They also slightly favored more established vegetation. The post-A.D. 1250 communities definitely gathered a more diverse set of weedy resources, and seemed slightly less reliant on established perennial vegetation. Both groups prepared maize during last use(s) of hearths.
Various explanations might account for these patterns. In one scenario, the earlier communities harvested the abundant resources of humanly disturbed patches distributed within the still-intact pinyon-juniper woodland. Later groups, either by choice or necessity, sought a greater diversity of weedy resources, even as they continued to rely on maize. Use of a higher diversity of plants can signal broader seasonal use of a location up to and including year-round occupation. Or, it might indicate that there was greater pressure on local resources, with longer travel and a more varied diet as one expression of coping. The fact that the post-A.D. 1250 records indicate a greater use of weedy species suggests that the groups occupied an even more humanly disturbed environment than before.
The overall charcoal record offers additional insights. The consistent use of both juniper and pine wood and their parts through time suggests that the regional pinyon-juniper woodland was fairly intact for the duration of the thirteenth century. If the post-A.D. 1250 occupants had been forced to resort to burning roof timbers, one might expect a preponderance of juniper charcoal in the hearths. Juniper was the much-preferred roof timber species, and one might also not expect associated vegetative parts (twigs, scale leaves) to be attached to old, de-barked tree trunks. Therefore, a reasonable interpretation is that the pinyon-juniper woodland was present in some form both before and after A.D. 1250. One insight from the elevated pine fuel record of talus-slope/bench sites is that pine resources were relatively abundant in this localized area.
A slight drop in Zea cob use in the last fires in hearths of the post-A.D. 1250 period hints that this agricultural by-product was in somewhat reduced supply. This could reflect seasonality (perhaps the last fires in these hearths were built so long after the fall harvest that all of the cobs had already been burned) or it could suggest a somewhat smaller maize harvest, with fewer cobs available to burn.
Many of the same shrub woods burned in the pre-A.D. 1250 period were also burned later in time, including the mesic habitat Populus/Salix. This suggests that certain fires required woods with specific characteristics and that general-purpose fires might be composed of more than one type of dead wood. The addition of three new taxa to the post-A.D. 1250 list of fuels is in part explainable by community location; Fraxinus anomala grows in the lower Sand Canyon drainage bottom, closer to both the lower Sand Canyon and talus-slope/bench pueblos than to the upland mesa-top sites. Emphasis on using Atriplex and Chrysothamnus in the later period is not similarly explained, nor is there any insight into why Ephedra occurs notably in lower Sand Canyon hearths.
Functional Comparisons
Archaeologists have suggested that the tested sites fall into three general categories, including locations that were either seasonally occupied or had a special function (Troy's Tower, Mad Dog Tower), medium habitations of 15 to 20 households (Castle Rock Pueblo), and small habitations of one to three households (the remaining 10 sites). As discussed earlier in this report, the plant remains at both Troy's Tower and Mad Dog Tower are distinguished by high reproductive part diversity and presence of rare taxa (Troy's Tower) or by a virtual lack of reproductive parts (Mad Dog Tower). These two sites, lacking roomblocks, may in part reflect the variability in prehistoric household composition, or they may be sites that did not function primarily as habitations. Other sites that have somewhat unusual plant records include Catherine's Site and Castle Rock Pueblo, both having moderate reproductive plant part diversity and a few rarely occurring taxa. Lillian's also has a higher diversity than the remaining eight sites (G and G, Roy's, Shorlene's, Kenzie Dawn, Lester's, Lookout, Stanton's, and Saddlehorn), which are all similar in their general plant records.
With the exception of Mad Dog Tower, all tested sites appear to be places where people processed agricultural products and prepared commonly available wild plant resources. Additional activities involving rare taxa (Cycloloma, Euphorbia, Mentzelia, Nicotiana, Plantago) took place at Troy's Tower, Catherine's Site, and Castle Rock Pueblo. These rare taxa have provided food or, in the case of Nicotiana, smoking materials elsewhere in the Southwest. How available they were in the Sand Canyon locality during ancient times is difficult to say; at present, only Plantago plants have been located in any abundance. Cycloloma and Mentzelia may be reduced due to historic land use, and Nicotiana may require fire to flourish.
Other Comparisons
Burned vs. Unburned Contexts
A comparison of results from burned vs. unburned structures reveals no insights into differential preservation or site-formation processes. Because the original flotation sampling design for the tested sites focused heavily on both hearth/thermal features and midden debris, very few flotation samples actually derive from the burning of an ancient structure. Of those few that do, a sample of floor ash from a kiva at Roy's Ruin preserved only fuel evidence. Floor ash at Troy's Tower contained a variety of charcoal types, plus an intrusive historic wheat (Triticum) grain. Although both Lester's Site and Saddlehorn Hamlet had kivas that burned, flotation samples from the roof or a higher stratum contained only evidence of burned roof construction materials or fuel.
Thermal Feature Fill vs. Midden Debris
A comparison of thermal feature fill with midden debris was made to spot any systematic, patterned differences. It is assumed that thermal feature fill represents relatively short-term events prior to abandonment of a thermal feature and that midden refuse accumulated over some greater length of time and can represent a variety of household and community activities. Plant taxa from 45 individual samples, representing 21 separate hearths and other thermal features (excluding Roy's Ruin, which lacked a formal hearth), were looked at in terms of ubiquity by site in comparison to 105 midden samples from all 13 sites (Table 16.20).
Looking only at reproductive parts, systematic, patterned differences are few between thermal features and midden deposits. Most of the reproductive parts preserved in the same number of thermal features (8-17 percent) as in middens (8-17 percent). Some taxa (cheno-am seeds, Opuntia seeds, Physalis seeds, Zea mays kernel fragments) have a higher presence in both thermal features and midden deposits, presumably reflecting a higher incidence of both preparation via fire and subsequent discard of burned debris from preparation accidents into middens.
The only differences between thermal features and midden contexts worth noting are those of cheno-am seeds (higher recovery in middens) and Gramineae grains (higher recovery in thermal features). Such patterning could be the result of (a) unequal sample size, (b) behavioral differences (for example, some midden debris may not derive from thermal features, or perhaps not all thermal feature waste is discarded into middens), and (c) site-formation processes, such as postdepositional degradation due to the longer time(s) generally assumed for midden accumulation. In the case of cheno-am seeds, another explanation may be possible. The higher recovery in middens may reflect their presence there as live plants exploiting a much-disturbed habitat. Cheno-am seeds, regularly shed onto the accumulating midden, could have become scorched when a new load of still-smoldering embers was deposited in the midden.
Summary
The tested sites macrobotanical database is rich and informative. Charred reproductive parts suggest some of the foods that may have been part of the ancient diet and reveal something about the local environment around each community. Wood charcoal and associated vegetative parts indicate which woods were used for fuel and provide a perspective on Sand Canyon locality vegetation dynamics through the late Puebloan occupation.
The majority of the 13 tested sites yielded plant remains that represent both agricultural endeavors and the harvesting of wild plants. The recovery of maize (Zea mays) kernel, cob, cupule, and stalk fragments from sites implies that agricultural fields were located close enough to the sites for the inhabitants to have routinely burned leftover residue from harvesting and processing. Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) were also raised. No macrofossils survived to indicate that squash (Cucurbita) was grown, though pollen from this domesticate preserved at Saddlehorn Hamlet. Further evidence of agriculture in the tested-site assemblage is the frequent occurrence of seeds of wild plants (cheno-ams, portulaca, groundcherry) likely to flourish in disturbed habitats such as fields. Only Mad Dog Tower in lower Sand Canyon deviates from this basic pattern.
Hearth debris, including food residues and burned wood, appears to have been routinely discarded into middens. Plant remains from most kiva hearths are similar to those preserved in nonkiva hearths, suggesting similar food-preparation activities. A wide variety of trees and shrubs were burned, all of them present in the area today. Juniper (Juniperus) and pine (Pinus) wood and branches, sometimes with fruit parts, were used, along with leftover maize cobs. People also walked short distances to find wood of cottonwood/willow (Populus/Salix) and single-leaf ash (Fraxinus anomala), and they collected the smaller twigs and branches of many different shrubs. The residents of upper Sand Canyon used oak (Quercus) on occasion; those of the talus-slope/bench sites seemed to prefer pine over juniper, and they also gathered rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus). Residents of lower Sand Canyon and of the upper Sand Canyon talus-slope/bench sites burned maize cobs more often than did the residents of the upper Sand Canyon mesa-top sites. Lower Sand Canyon inhabitants also used saltbush (Atriplex) and small amounts of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa).
People probably occupied most sites at least from spring through fall. This conclusion is drawn partly on the basis of what we know about the field-preparation and harvest requirements for maize and beans and partly on the basis of seasonality indicators in the wild plant record. Lemonadeberry (Rhus aromatica) seeds and ricegrass (Stipa) grains are generally ripe in late spring/early summer, and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) flowering heads form in late summer/early fall. The tested-sites plant record does not preclude human presence in the communities year-round, since plant evidence often cannot provide evidence for winter occupation.
Seasonal movement of humans or plant products between upper and lower Sand Canyon is not indicated by the tested-site assemblage, but until methods are developed to source agricultural or wild products in terms of their area of growth, this cannot be ruled out. The current record suggests that both upper and lower Sand Canyon groups relied on a similar mixed subsistence base of agricultural products and wild resources, all likely grown or acquired locally.
Some interesting plant records preserved. Today, beeweed (Cleome) grows in damp canyon bottoms, such as along McElmo Creek, which adjoins lower Sand Canyon. However, Cleome pollen and seeds belonging to the Capparaceae family were recovered from mesa-top sites, suggesting that the Puebloans encouraged the growth of this plant in their upper Sand Canyon gardens, perhaps going so far as to scatter seeds. Beeweed would have done especially well if the fields received extra water through some form of runoff management. One plant recovered from the tested sites, winged pigweed (Cycloloma atriplicifolium), has not been located in a thorough search of the region. The absence of this plant today may be attributable to historic disturbance, such as livestock grazing, or to some other circumstance. Native tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata) has been sighted only in the very disturbed backfill of an excavated structure at Sand Canyon Pueblo, where evidence of ancient reedgrass cigarette preparation has also been documented. It is likely that native tobacco did well in the generally disturbed habitat surrounding this ancient Puebloan community, and it may have thrived in any section of the pinyon-juniper woodland that burned. Other plant taxa rarely seen in the tested-site assemblages include spurge (Euphorbia), woolly-wheat (Plantago), and Mentzelia albicaulis.
There is some diversity in the plant records for the tested sites. Already noted, Mad Dog Tower is unusual in its absence of reproductive parts, and the plant remains present shed no light on past activities. The kiva hearth appears to have been used only for burning wood. Small sample size may in part be responsible for this record. In upper Sand Canyon, the plant remains recovered from Troy's Tower definitely suggest that this mesa-top site served a special function. Troy's Tower had the greatest diversity of reproductive parts (N = 16) of any of the tested sites. The presence of stickleaf, spurge, woolly-wheat, and winged pigweed seeds in the tower hearth are rare at all sites. Also, the hearth in the kiva preserved no evidence of food preparation, contrary to the hearths in most other structures. Catherine's, a talus-slope/bench site, had the second-highest diversity of reproductive plant parts (N = 11), including seeds of stickleaf, winged pigweed, and native tobacco. For this reason, it, too, seems unusual. Neither of these two sites were sampled more heavily than most of the other sites. The mesa-top site of Lillian's and the lower Sand Canyon site of Castle Rock each preserved reproductive parts of nine separate taxa. These two sites stand out somewhat from the remaining tested sites, each of which preserved reproductive parts of five commonly recovered taxa, on average.
Analysis of hearth contents revealed what was prepared in the last fire(s) in these features. Cheno-am and groundcherry, both quite weedy in habit, are well represented by seeds found in hearths at the upper Sand Canyon mesa-top sites. Since these plants are generally available from late summer through fall, the simplest explanation is that the hearths were last used in late summer or fall. Hearths at the talus and bench sites lacked cheno-am seeds, and lower Sand Canyon hearths lacked groundcherry seeds. Both patterns are puzzling, because groundcherry grows in lower Sand Canyon, and goosefoot and amaranth plants do well everywhere in the region.
When the two most unusual sites, Troy's Tower and Mad Dog Tower, are excluded from consideration, there are several chronological patterns worth noting. For example, pre-A.D. 1250 inhabitants relied heavily on seeds of three weedy plants (cheno-ams, Physalis, and Portulaca) and to some extent on nonweedy resources, whereas post-A.D. 1250 groups relied on a wider variety of weedy taxa. The lack of maize kernels in pre-A.D. 1250 mesa-top hearths suggests that none were available to prepare. Hearths at post-A.D. 1250 sites in lower Sand Canyon yielded maize kernels at nearly half the rate of the talus-slope/bench sites of the same period. Use of maize cobs as hearth fuel in the post-A.D. 1250 period also seems reduced. Perhaps the last fires were built some time after fall harvest, when all the cobs had already been burned up, or perhaps a relatively smaller maize harvest provided a smaller number of cobs to burn.
Together, all these patterns suggest that the earlier communities harvested from humanly disturbed habitats and established natural vegetation within an intact pinyon-juniper woodland. The humanly disturbed habitats included agricultural fields where people grew maize and beans; these fields were probably located fairly near each pueblo or hamlet. The inhabitants used a variety of fuels, relying heavily on pine, juniper, and leftover maize cobs. Some of their last fires may not have involved the preparation of maize kernels. Although the plant remains do not argue strongly for or against year-round occupation, archaeological evidence suggests that at least some people lived in these communities throughout the year.
Later groups used a greater diversity of weedy resources and were slightly less reliant on plants of established vegetation, but they relied on maize till the end. They, too, had agricultural fields nearby and used a variety of fuelwoods. The greater diversity of resource use might imply a longer season in residence or perhaps greater resource pressure. The Sand Canyon locality after A.D. 1250 may have been an even more humanly disturbed habitat than before, but the pinyon-juniper woodland was still intact, as evidenced by the consistent recovery of a variety of pinyon and juniper vegetative parts. The final occupants seem to have had fewer maize cobs to burn as hearth fuel, suggesting perhaps smaller maize harvests or abandonment after harvests when no cobs were left to burn. All sites, with the possible exception of Mad Dog Tower, were occupied minimally spring through fall. Although the macrobotanical remains reveal no direct evidence of winter occupation, such evidence rarely exists, and the plant record certainly does not preclude year-round occupation. Such a case may be more strongly built on the basis of other archaeological assessments.
1. In both the text and tables of this chapter, a shorthand notation is used to indicate the number of samples from a particular context in which a given taxon was present. For example, the notation (3/3) means that the taxon being discussed was present in three samples out of a total of three samples collected from that context; the notation (2/3) indicates that the taxon was present in two out of three samples.