Chapter 19: Human Skeletal Remains, The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: Site Testing

Burials and miscellaneous human bone from the Site Testing Program, 1988-1991, were analyzed in order to fully describe the remains. The excavations uncovered 10 burials in which 18 individuals were identified. Some of these individuals are represented by only one or a few bones. Four of the 10 burials were exposed in the field but were not removed; because I was not present during the recording of these four burials, the observations and interpretations regarding them are drawn from the field notes and maps of the archaeologists who oversaw the excavations. At least 11 additional individuals are represented by "miscellaneous bone"--disarticulated bone not collected as part of a burial. Thus, a minimum of 29 individuals are represented by the human remains recovered. Demographic information (age and/or sex estimates) on these individuals is given in Table 19.1.⁽¹⁾

This chapter includes an inventory of the human remains recovered from each burial, as well as descriptions of preservation, age at death, sex, dental wear, anomalies, and pathology. Stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen were analyzed from bone collagen recovered from selected burials. Miscellaneous bone is inventoried and described by site and location in Appendix C; the number of individuals represented by the miscellaneous bone was noted during analysis, and an attempt was made to determine whether any of the material could be bones recorded as "missing" from known burials at the same site. Burials and/or miscellaneous bone were recovered from G and G Hamlet, Lillian's Site, Roy's Ruin, Kenzie Dawn Hamlet, Shorlene's Site, Troy's Tower, Lester's Site, Lookout House, Stanton's Site, Catherine's Site, and Castle Rock Pueblo. Only Saddlehorn Hamlet and Mad Dog Tower lacked human remains.

The first part of this chapter describes the methods used in the various analyses, including age (at death) assessment, determination of sex, identification of pathologies and anomalies, the recording of metric and nonmetric traits, and stable isotope analysis. The descriptive data for each site are then presented, followed by interpretations and a discussion of the similarities and differences between the human remains from the tested sites and those recovered from Sand Canyon Pueblo.

Methods of Analysis

All human remains from each site were identified, described, and inventoried. Any departure from normal, whole bones was noted, including postmortem breakage, weathering, burning, and tooth marks. This information was used in conjunction with the field record of the burial to evaluate if any of the damage evident on the bones occurred around the time of death.

Age of the individual was determined using standard osteological techniques. For infants and young children, the development and eruption of the teeth was used (Ubelaker 1989). For children over 10 years of age, the appearance and fusion of epiphyses was used (Krogman and Iscan 1986). Young-adult age determination was based on the pubic symphysis when present (Suchey et al. 1988); otherwise, a combination of the auricular surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985), anterio-lateral cranial suture closure (Meindl and Lovejoy 1985), and dental wear (Lovejoy 1985) was used.

Sex was determined on individuals over 18 years of age. The techniques used to determine sex depended on the skeletal inventory. Greatest reliance was placed on the three features of the pubic bone described by Phenice (1969). Other features include different aspects of the pelvis (Krogman and Iscan 1986), and when no pelvic remains were available, the cranium was used. Sex determination based on the cranium is not conclusive for this collection, because the females of this region sometimes have very robust cranial features. This trait was also noted by Hoffman (1985), who studied skeletons excavated at Sand Canyon Pueblo and the Duckfoot site.

Pathology was noted and described as fully as possible. Dental caries, abscesses, and periodontal resorption are included with pathology. Enamel hypoplasia was noted when present and was studied in detail by another investigator (Malville 1993). Anomalies, or nonmetric traits, follow the list given in Rose et al. (1991). Information on nonmetric traits for burials from the tested sites is presented in Appendix D. (See Appendix E for the scoring system used for the nonmetric traits presented in Appendix D.) Metric traits for the cranial and postcranial skeleton follow the recommendations in Rose et al. (1991), as well as those from the Forensic Database (Jantz and Moore-Jansen 1988). Metric traits for four burials from the tested sites are presented in Appendix F.

Condition or preservation of the remains is described in general terms in conjunction with the burial record. More detailed information on condition is included in the description of each element.

Stable isotope analysis was carried out on selected samples. Collagen was extracted following the technique described by Schoeninger and DeNiro (1984). Stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen were analyzed on a Micromass Prism mass spectrometer in the Department of Physics, University of Calgary, Stable Isotope Laboratory, under the direction of H. R. Krouse. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen in each sample was determined using a Carlo Erba gas analyzer. Stable isotope values are reported as ¹³C (‰, _PDB) and ¹⁵N (‰, _AIR), following standard practice described in Katzenberg (1992a).

Human Remains at G and G Hamlet (5MT11338)

One burial and approximately 30 miscellaneous bones were found during testing of this multiple-component site. The burial is from the midden associated with the earlier, Pueblo II occupation of the site. The miscellaneous bone comes from the fill of the kiva and the midden associated with the late, Pueblo III occupation of the site. Information on the human bone recovered from G and G Hamlet can also be found in Chapter 2.

Burial 1

This burial was partly exposed, but the bones were not moved or taken from the ground. I did not observe the burial; therefore, the following description and interpretations are drawn from field notes and measurements recorded by K. A. Kuckelman, dated 10 October 1991.

This is the well-preserved skeleton of an adult male. It was found in a shallow grave on its back with arms folded across the abdomen. The cranium was not exposed. The excellent state of preservation and the burial position are distinctive from every other burial and scatter of bone reported here.

Preservation of these remains was excellent. This is the only burial which was found placed on its back with both arms folded across the abdomen. The burial was in a midden, within a burial pit which also contained grave goods. A nearly complete Moccasin Gray jar, a Pueblo II white ware bowl, a Mancos Black-on-white bowl sherd, a San Juan Red Ware bowl rim sherd, and a small, shaped ground-stone slab lay in the pit adjacent to the individual. These grave goods were analyzed in the field and were not collected.

Inventory and Description

Skull. The skull and mandible were not exposed.

Postcranial Remains. Parts exposed include the sternum, three left ribs, right and left humeri, ulnae, radii, three phalanges of the hand, right and left os coxae, femora, patellae, and tibiae. All elements appeared to be complete, but the ribs, os coxae, and tibiae were only partly exposed and it was not possible to assess their condition.

Pathology and Anomalies

No evidence of trauma or arthritis was detected on the exposed elements.

Age and Sex Assessment

Analysis in the field indicates that this individual was an adult. An attempt was made to assess the pubic symphyses, but these were damaged during excavation. Nonetheless, the lack of a rim and lack of a "rugged" appearance suggest that the individual was young.

The sciatic notch was assessed as male. Also, the medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus lacked a sharp edge and therefore the individual is assessed as male.

Miscellaneous Human Bone

Approximately 30 miscellaneous bones were recovered from G and G Hamlet (Appendix C), all from deposits associated with the Pueblo III occupation of the site. Bones of the hand and foot, rib fragments, and numerous unidentifiable, small bone fragments were recovered. The majority of the hand and foot bones were from the fill of Structure 1, a masonry-lined kiva; other bones (PD 154)⁽²⁾ were recovered from the midden. Based on the contexts of Burial 1 (in Pueblo II deposits) and the miscellaneous bones (in Pueblo III deposits), they are probably not associated. The miscellaneous bones represent the remains of at least one individual, an adult. A right capitate was also recovered.

Human Remains at Lillian's Site (5MT3936)

Lillian's Site is another multiple-component site with Pueblo II and Pueblo III occupations and perhaps a Basketmaker III occupation as well. A portion of a burial was encountered in the northwest corner of sampling unit 73N/87E in the midden, but the burial was not collected. Field observations indicate that the individual was an adult (sex could not be determined) and appeared to be buried in a shallow pit (see Chapter 3). A number of miscellaneous bones were recovered from Lillian's Site and are reported in Appendix C.

Miscellaneous Human Bone

Miscellaneous bones were recovered from two sampling units in the midden and from deposits beneath the masonry roomblock. A cervical vertebra (PD 45), collected with nonhuman bone, probably came from the burial encountered in the midden sampling unit 73N/87E.

The remaining miscellaneous bones (PDs 99, 104, and 147) were recovered from sampling unit 103N/95E, in a cultural deposit beneath the masonry roomblock. The bones were not articulated, but they may be a part of a primary or secondary interment present just outside the boundary of the sampling unit. The context in which the bones were found was difficult to interpret given the limited testing; however, the bones appeared to be in a large disturbance (see Chapter 3 for a more complete description of this sampling unit). The location of these bones below the masonry roomblock suggests that they are from the earlier Pueblo II occupation of the site; however, the difficulty in interpreting the stratigraphy in this area means this interpretation is not secure.

The miscellaneous bones recovered from Lillian's Site represent a minimum of two individuals, an adult and a subadult.

Human Remains at Roy's Ruin (5MT3930)

One burial and numerous miscellaneous bones or bone fragments were recovered from Roy's Ruin. This site has a Pueblo III component, interpreted as a habitation, and a Pueblo II component, interpreted as a brief, limited-use occupation.

Burial 1

This is a partial and fragmented skeleton of a subadult, 7 ± 2 years, found in the midden sampling unit, 77N/99E (see Chapter 4 for field observations of this burial). The right radius of an adult was found with the remains of the child.

The condition of the human remains was fair to poor. The burial was located on the edge of the midden, which today is located in an agricultural field. According to the burial report, by J. Fetterman, the burial was located in a shallow pit. He interpreted the burial as a secondary interment, because no articulations were observed. The presence of a single bone of an adult mixed in with the more complete remains of a subadult support the interpretation of a secondary interment. The upper part of the burial had been disturbed by plowing, and this is probably the most important factor in explaining the poor condition of the burial.

Inventory and Description

Skull. The frontal bone is represented by the squamous portion and several additional fragments. The left and right parietal bones are broken and incomplete. The occipital bone is broken but nearly complete--except for the left condylar portion. The left temporal bone is fragmentary; the right temporal bone is missing. The right side of the face was absent in the bones collected with Burial 1, but miscellaneous bone collected from the level above the burial (PD 71) includes portions of the right side of the face and skull of a subadult--probably the Burial 1 subadult. These bones include the right zygomatic, three cranial vault fragments, one cranial base fragment, and an occipital condyle fragment. Bones from the left side of the skull include only a partial maxilla and a complete zygomatic. Part of the left mandible is present. The left ramus is present.

Dentition. A fragment of the left maxilla includes roots and crypts for three teeth. One forming premolar crown is present. For the left mandible, there are roots of two incisors and a canine. One premolar and the first and second deciduous molars are present. The first permanent molar is present and the crown of the second permanent molar is erupting, but with a lateral orientation. On the right side, the first permanent incisor is erupted, the deciduous canine is present, and the permanent canine is partially formed (with the crown and about half the root). The premolars are unerupted with completed crowns and partially formed roots (approximately one-quarter). Both deciduous molars and the first permanent molar are erupted.

Postcranial Remains. The postcranial skeleton is almost entirely absent. Bones present include two rib fragments, a cervical vertebra (one of number 3 through 7), one fragmentary thoracic vertebra, the left ischium, the left femur, the epiphysis of the right femur, the left tibia (broken and partial), and the proximal and distal ends of a fibula (side indeterminate). Bones of the foot include three metatarsals and three phalanges. Fragmentary, subadult bone found in the level above the burial (PD 71, Appendix C) includes the centrum of a vertebra and a short bone fragment. These bones probably came from Burial 1 also.

An adult right radius (complete except for the head) was found in the burial pit and was the only bone not from the subadult. This mixing supports the interpretation that the burial was a secondary interment.

Pathology and Anomalies

There was no evidence of pathology or anomalies on this burial.

Age and Sex Assessment

The following observations apply to the subadult remains. All sutures and epiphyses that could be observed remain unfused. These include the basilar suture, vertebral rims, primary elements of the os coxae, ischial tuberosity, ulna, femur, and tibia. The mixed deciduous, permanent dentition indicates an age of 7 ± 2 years. It was not possible to determine the sex of the individual due to the young age.

Miscellaneous Human Bone

In addition to the miscellaneous bone discussed above as probably being from Burial 1, a vertebral fragment and a tooth enamel fragment were recovered from two different units in Sampling Stratum 7 (Appendix C).

Human Remains at Kenzie Dawn Hamlet (5MT5152)

Kenzie Dawn Hamlet was stratigraphically the most complex site excavated during the Testing Program. Basketmaker III, Pueblo II, and Pueblo III habitation components are present. No burials were encountered, but many miscellaneous bones, including four teeth, were recovered from various contexts at the site (Appendix C). The remains include the left femur, left tibia, and one vertebra of an infant; a rib and two permanent premolars of a juvenile; and a permanent second molar and premolar of an adult. Thus, a minimum of three individuals is represented by the remains.

Human Remains at Shorlene's Site (5MT3918)

One deciduous molar was collected from this multiple-component habitation site (Appendix C). No other human remains were recovered.

Human Remains at Troy's Tower (5MT3951)

One burial was recovered from Troy's Tower; all human remains from the site are included as Burial 1. The site, dating to the Pueblo III period, consists of a tower, a kiva, a small trash area, and two large pits.

Burial 1

This individual is a female, aged 25-30 years, based on fusion of epiphyses and morphology of the auricular surface of the ilium (see Chapter 7 for field observations of this burial). There is considerable cranial deformation in the form of occipital lambdoidal flattening with corresponding lateral expansion of the left and right parietals. There is a large depression fracture above the right orbit.

Preservation is very good, and most of the skeleton is present. More of the left side of the body is present; however, where both sides are present, there is more weathering of the left side. This is apparent on the ribs and scapulae and may be due to soil conditions during burial if the left side was subjected to more moisture than the right side.

The burial was found against a wall in Structure 4, a large storage pit,. Sandstone rocks and slabs were placed around the burial. The field report, by K. A. Kuckelman, states that it appeared that no burial pit had been dug. The partial skeleton was found lying on the left side with the cranium face down. The cranium was crushed and the greater breakage on the back of the skull is postmortem. The large fracture on the frontal bone may have resulted from a blow to the head and may have been the cause of death. The disordered burial position may reflect placement of the individual, but the excavator noted considerable rodent activity around the burial. The missing right arm and right leg suggest postmortem disturbance by carnivores, though no puncture marks on remaining bones were noted during analysis. Also, the burial was covered by large rocks that did not appear to be disturbed. Thus, the missing right arm and leg were probably gone before the interment took place. No cut marks were noted, so butchering of the individual is unlikely.

Inventory and Description

The skeleton is relatively complete, though missing the right upper and lower limbs; there is some breakage of the cranial bones. A detailed inventory follows.

Skull. The frontal bone has a large depression fracture above the right orbit. The fracture measures 38 mm laterally and 13 mm superior to inferior. Radiating fractures extend laterally above the left orbit, inferiorly to the right orbital plate and to the zygomatic process. The right parietal bone is complete. The left parietal bone includes a portion which attaches at bregma. The bone is broken at the sagittal suture near lambda lateral to the squamosal suture.

The temporal, zygomatic, and palatine bones are complete. The occipital bone is fragmented, with the squamous portion broken into three pieces. The vault is sliced in the sagittal plane. The basilor portion is separate but present.

The mandible is complete. There is evidence of healed trauma to the lower jaw--a lipping along the inferior margin between the mental protuberance and the mental foramen. There are calculus deposits around the anterior teeth and some periodontal resorption.

The maxillae are broken around the nasal cavity and the frontal processes. The more fragile bones of the face, including the ethmoid, lacrimals, and vomer were not preserved.

Dentition. All teeth are present except the right mandibular lateral incisor and the left maxillary first premolar, which were lost postmortem. The right third molars, both maxillary and mandibular, are congenitally absent. The left third molars have only two cusps.

Postcranial Remains. The left, upper limb is complete; the right, upper limb includes only the clavicle and scapula of the pectoral girdle. Three carpals of the left hand are present, as well as the first metacarpal and one phalanx. All ribs and vertebrae are present, but there is some breakage of thoracic vertebrae. Rib samples were taken for stable isotope analysis. The pelvic girdle includes complete os coxae with the exception of the pubic symphyses, which are broken away. The left femur, tibia, and fibula are present, but the tibia and fibula are broken such that only the proximal three-quarters are present. The right lower limb is absent.

Pathology and Anomalies

In addition to the cranial trauma and lipping along the inferior margin of the mandible already mentioned, the neural arch of the fifth lumbar vertebrae is congenitally absent or occurred as an unfused element which has been lost.

Age and Sex Assessment

Dental attrition is marked for the first permanent molars, with cusps worn and some exposure of dentin. The second molars show wear of cusps only, and the third molars show no wear. The basilar suture is fused, and all epiphyses of vertebrae, long bones, and pelvic bones are fused. Unfortunately, the articular surfaces of both pubic symphyses are damaged, and age assessment using this region is not possible. All cranial sutures remain unfused. These criteria suggest an age between 25 years (all epiphyses fused) and 30 years (beginning fusion of cranial sutures; dental attrition).

The pelvis has characteristic female morphology, with very pronounced preauricular sulci, bilaterally, and parturition scars on the dorsal aspect of the pubic bones.

Human Remains at Lester's Site (5MT10246)

Lester's Site is located at the base of a cliff at the top of the talus slope. The site lies approximately 50 m west of the Sand Canyon Pueblo enclosing wall. Lester's Site is a single-component site occupied in the late Pueblo III period, perhaps up to the time of the regional abandonment. Human remains from Lester's Site include the burial of a child and several miscellaneous bones. Field observations of the burial are discussed in detail in Chapter 8.

Burial 1

Burial 1 is the partial skeleton of a young child, aged approximately 4 years ± 1 year. The bones are in good condition, and the recovery of so much of a young child is evidence of careful excavation. The burial report, by K. A. Kuckelman, provides information on the placement of the burial and surrounding rocks which may be responsible for some of the breaks noted in the skull and postcranial skeleton. The body was semiflexed and lying on the left side with the head facing west. The legs were semiflexed, and the arms extended away from the chest. The burial was found beside a retaining wall in a refuse area. Kuckelman reports that the rocks around the lower legs were part of the fill laid over the body. A large block of stone was found over the cranium and thorax; it was probably placed intentionally, as it was found immediately over the bones. A defined burial pit did not exist, which is similar to the burial at Troy's Tower. Crushing of the area around the knees was due to rocks, and the cranium may have broken under the weight of the large slab placed over the head and torso.

Inventory and Description

Skull. The bones of the cranium are all separate, with some breakage. The frontal bone shows a trace of the metopic suture. On the left parietal, near the midpoint, there is a fracture which is probably the result of postmortem weathering. Another fracture occurs 45 mm superior to the squamosal suture, with four fracture lines radiating in various directions. The ectocranial surface has a chalky, grayish appearance. The right parietal is broken into five pieces. The squamous portion of the occipital bone is present. The two halves of the basilor portion are present and unfused. There are traces of the mendosal suture laterally. The tympanic plates of the temporal bones remain open. The maxillae are present and complete.

Dentition. None of the permanent teeth have erupted, but crowns are visible in crypts for the maxillary incisors and first molars, and for the mandibular incisor (left) and first molar. Deciduous teeth present include the maxillary left central incisor and both molars, and the right maxillary canine and both molars. For the mandible, the left incisors, canine, and molars are present. For the right side, the canine and molars are present.

Postcranial Remains. Except for some minor breakage and for the hands, which are fragmentary, all bones of the pectoral girdle and upper limb are present. The vertebrae are present as separate left and right halves of cervical neural arches and separate bodies. Most neural arch halves are fused, but none are fused to the vertebral bodies. The ilia are present but ischia and pubes are not. The right leg is represented by the proximal ends of the tibia and fibula only. The left leg includes the femur (except for the distal end), the proximal half of the tibia, and the distal two-thirds of the fibula. Some tarsals and their epiphyses are present.

A number of other bones were also recovered from the area of the burial and were provenienced as part of the burial. These bones represent three individuals. A number of femur fragments were recovered and are probably from the subadult described above. In addition, there are three phalanges from an older adult and several infant (or fetus) bones--two neural arches, a metacarpal, a left ilium, and several long bone fragments. A proximal tibia epiphysis from a subadult was also recovered.

Pathology and Anomalies

No pathology, dental caries, or anomalies were noted.

Age and Sex Assessment

Age is based on the dentition. Complete eruption of the deciduous dentition is achieved by three years of age. The neural arches of the vertebrae begin to fuse by three years of age. At four years of age, the crowns of the incisors and first permanent molar are formed but have not yet begun to erupt. Age is therefore estimated at 4 years ± 1 year. Due to the young age, estimation of sex is not possible.

Miscellaneous Human Bone

Only a few miscellaneous bones were recovered from Lester's Site (Appendix C). A cranial vault fragment was collected from 96N/113E in the courtyard (PD 18), and burned cranial vault fragments and a burned, mandibular second molar crown were found in 85N/122E in the midden (PDs 134 and 195). Remains showing evidence of burning are all fragments from the skull. Burned bone is not uncommon and may occur when individuals are placed over hearths, are cremated, or are trapped in burning structures. In the latter case, with extreme heat, the skull characteristically explodes and only small fragments are found.

Human Remains at Lookout House (5MT10459)

Lookout House is another site located at the base of the cliff at the top of the talus slope. Lookout House is approximately 300 m west of Lester's Site. Like Lester's Site, the occupation at Lookout House is interpreted as a habitation that dates to the late Pueblo III period, just before the regional abandonment. Human remains include three burials and numerous miscellaneous bones.

Two of the burials, both found in Structure 2, were recorded in the field and were not collected due to time constraints. Feature 7 (no burial number) was encountered along the north wall of sampling unit 101N/108E. The body was exposed only enough to determine that it was the articulated skeleton of a child. Feature 8 (no burial number) was located in 99N/109E and is probably that of a juvenile or adult. Burial 1, located in the midden, was collected and is described below. Excavation details concerning the burials from this site can be found in Chapter 9.

The miscellaneous bones recovered are listed in Appendix C. Some of the bones are probably from the individual collected as Burial 1; others represent at least one other individual.

Burial 1

Burial 1 is the weathered, partial skeleton of an adult male, aged 50+ years. The burial was tightly flexed and located in a pit in the midden at the base of a sandstone face. The remains that were near or in contact with the sandstone face are extremely weathered and fragmented. There was rodent activity evident in the area, and gnaw marks were observed on some bones. The burial was found face down, but the excavators, Havers and Kuckelman, note that it may have initially rested on the right side, based on the location of particular elements. Grave goods included a complete Mesa Verde Black-on-white mug and a complete Pueblo III White Painted bowl.

An infant skull fragment and a small, long bone epiphysis from an infant were also found in the pit at an elevation below the adult remains.

Inventory and Description

Skull. The skull is weathered and much of the right side of the cranium is broken and missing. The frontal bone is broken on the right side, with the right orbital plate and part of the squamous portion missing. There is a postmortem fracture extending from the rim of the right orbit to just short of the coronal suture.

Approximately three-quarters of the right parietal is present. There is extensive postmortem erosion of the inner table, and the Pacchonian pits are very deep. On the left parietal, there is an extensive network of roots (3 mm in diameter) which had grown inside the skull. The right temporal bone is represented only by the petrous portion. The zygomatic process of the left temporal bone is broken, and a fragment of the right zygomatic arch is present.

Dentition. Both right and left maxillae are broken. The left side includes sockets for the central incisor through the first molar; the right side includes the sockets for the central incisor through the second premolar. One premolar and the root of one anterior tooth are present. The mandible is broken through the root of the left lateral incisor. There is rodent gnawing along the left ramus. Only the left canine is present in the bone. Other mandibular teeth, lost postmortem, include three molars, three incisors, and four premolars. Attrition is advanced such that individual identification is difficult. The left molars were lost antemortem.

Postcranial Remains. The medial half of the right clavicle is missing. The blades of both scapulae are eroded, postmortem. The left humerus is represented by the proximal end and approximately two-thirds of the shaft. The right side is represented by the shaft only. Similarly, the left ulna consists of the proximal end and two-thirds of the shaft, but the right ulna consists of the shaft only. Both radii are present. The hands are represented by two metacarpal shafts, a proximal phalanx, and a middle phalanx. The manubrium and sternum are present, though broken. Ribs are present, with some fragmented and/or broken. The vertebrae are present, though the left side of the atlas is broken. There are seven weathered sacrum fragments. The os coxae are present except for the left pubis. The lower limbs are represented by the left femur shaft, right femur shaft and part of the head, right and left tibia shafts, and the left fibula shaft. Other remains include a weathered metacarpal or metatarsal fragment and a weathered carpal or tarsal.

Pathology and Anomalies

There is no evidence of pathology in this very weathered skeleton. There is a fracture which is probably postmortem and extends from the rim of the right orbit to just short of the coronal suture. There is a point of impact about 2 cm above the right orbit. Most of the right side of the cranium is missing, and the part that is present is extremely weathered and cracked, so this fracture is consistent with cracking due to weathering.

Age and Sex Assessment

All epiphyses which can be evaluated are fused. All cranial sutures which can be evaluated are fused endocranially. Ectocranially, the midlambdoid, lambda, obelion, anterior sagittal, and bregma are partially united. The pubic bone was evaluated using the Suchey-Brooks phases for males. Phase VI has a mean age of 63 years and a range of 36-87 years. The fused sutures and extreme dental attrition (with antemortem loss of molars), all support an age in excess of 50 years. The auricular surface was evaluated using the criteria set out by Lovejoy et al. (1985), giving a range of 45-50 years.

Morphological features of the pelvis, including the pubic bone features described by Phenice (1969), and features of the skull are characteristically male.

Miscellaneous Human Bone

Numerous miscellaneous bones were recovered from Lookout House (Appendix C). The metacarpal (PD 137) and the middle phalanx (PD 164) are from the immediate area of Burial 1 and are probably part of the individual in Burial 1.

Numerous bones (PD 99) from the fill of a masonry room, Structure 3, represent at least two individuals (two right second metatarsals were recovered). Other bones were exposed in the stratigraphic profile of the structure but were not removed during excavation. It is likely that a burial is present just outside the excavated area.

Human Remains at Stanton's Site (5MT10508)

Stanton's Site is another site located at the base of the cliff and the top of the talus slope. Like Lester's Site and Lookout House, it is interpreted as a single-component, late-Pueblo III habitation. Human remains recovered during testing include 10 bones and one deciduous tooth (Appendix C). At least two individuals, a child aged 2-4 years and an adult, are represented by these remains, which include unfused vertebral elements and a deciduous canine, and a fully mature bone of the forearm, respectively.

Human Remains at Catherine's Site (5MT3967)

Catherine's Site is located at the base of the talus slope approximately 100 m below Stanton's Site. The site has a Pueblo II limited-use occupation and a late-Pueblo III occupation interpreted as a relatively long-term habitation. Miscellaneous bone recovered from the site indicates a minimum of two individuals. The bones recovered were a left patella and right scapula fragment from an adult, and a vertebra fragment from an infant (Appendix C).

Human Remains at Castle Rock Pueblo (5MT1825)

Castle Rock Pueblo is located just above the McElmo Creek floodplain. The site is built around a prominent butte known as Castle Rock Butte. Castle Rock Pueblo, the site at the base and on top of the butte, is one of three sites tested in lower Sand Canyon, and the only one of the three sites where human remains were found. Castle Rock Pueblo is the largest site investigated by the Testing Program, with an estimated 13 to 16 kivas and 40 to 75 surface rooms.

Much of the human bone found at the site was located in two kivas--Structure 206, situated near the southwest end of Castle Rock Butte, and Structure 302, on the north side of the butte. The bones were designated as Burials 2 and 3; Burial 1 was assigned in the field and subsequently voided. Both burials consist of the commingled remains of several individuals. A complete inventory of bones from Burials 2 and 3 is given in Appendix C, along with the miscellaneous bone recovered from other site contexts.

Burial 2

Burial 2 consists of numerous bones which are highly fragmented and weathered. Human bone was present throughout the lower fill of the test pit excavated in Structure 206.

The field description of Burial 2 indicates that the bones were fragmentary and randomly scattered and were from at least two individuals. The excavators noted that bones extended in all directions into the profiles. Thus, additional bone is present in the unexcavated portion of Structure 206.

Burial 2 represents a minimum of four individuals: an adult, two subadults, and an infant. There are numerous adult bones. Subadult bones include a left ilium (PD 546, FS 4, PL 34), probably from an adolescent, aged 14-15 years. Other subadult bones recovered were a left humerus (PD 550, FS 5, PL 45), right hand and arm bones (PD 550, FS 4), and an articulated left radius, ulna, and hand bones (PD 551, FS 4, PL 48). The arm and hand bones are from a younger child. In addition, a distal femur fragment (PD 550, FS 4) from an infant was recovered.

Pathology and Anomalies

One premolar has very large interproximal caries. Dental carries, which are associated with a high-carbohydrate diet, show up infrequently in this sample. Two individuals from the Sand Canyon Pueblo have caries. The low average age of the tested sites sample makes it difficult to compare it with other samples in the region. Many of the teeth present in association with the subadult remains show enamel hypoplasia, indicating some growth disturbance.

Age and Sex Assessment

Age for the adult is based on dentition. The fragment of facial skeleton (PD 545, FS 13, PL 32) has molars missing antemortem and extreme attrition of the remaining teeth, with periodontal resorption and thinning of alveolar bone. All of these characteristics suggest an older adult--greater than 40 years. The subadult pelvis is aged 14-15 years based on fusion of the primary elements of the os coxae, but lack of fusion of the epiphysis for the iliac crest. This estimate is consistent with that derived from the dentition (PD 550, FS 4).

The subadult ilium has female features (pre-auricular sulcus with slight pitting and a moderately broad sciatic notch) but is too young to conclusively state sex.

Burial 3

Burial 3 is a collection of scattered human remains found in the fill and on the floor of Structure 302. Bones were found beginning at the level of the bench and continuing down to the floor.

Some of the remains are very weathered. According to the burial report, the remains found at higher elevations (surrounded by roof fall), showed the poorest preservation. The remains located lower in the structure showed better preservation. There were a number of elements that were articulated, though the majority of elements were not articulated.

The remains from Burial 3 represent three adults and one subadult. Adult bones include a left os coxae (assessed as female, age 51 ± 14 years) and a right os coxae (assessed as female, age 17-19 years). The bones recovered from Burial 3 include three right tali, indicating a minimum number of three adults. Subadult bones were also recovered from Burial 3 and include a right radius and ulna (aged 8-12 years) and several hand bones (PD 444, FS 15, PL 17, and PD 444, FS 22, PL 24).

Many more bones from Burial 3 were recovered in subsequent excavations and are reported in Kuckelman et al. (1992).

Pathology and Anomalies

None of the bones from Burial 3 show evidence of disease. There are obvious cuts on two elements--a proximal femur with the head and greater trochanter sheared off and a distal fibula with a cut at the lateral malleolus.

Age and Sex Assessment

One adult is aged 17-19 years based on recent fusion of the ischial tuberosity. Another adult is aged 51 ± 14 years based on the pubic symphysis. The subadult is aged less than 12 years, based on lack of epiphyses on the ulna and radius (proximal and distal ends are unfused).

Two of the adults appear to have been females. The right ox coxae (PD 449, FS 2, PL 25) is aged 17-19 years and has female characteristics. The left os coxae, aged 51 ± 14 (PD 461, FS 5, PL 27) based on the pubic symphysis has classic female features, including parturition scars on both the ilium and the dorsal aspect of the pubis.

Miscellaneous Human Bone

A small amount of miscellaneous bone was found in a variety of contexts at Castle Rock Pueblo (Appendix C). The bones came from several structures, the midden on the south side of the butte, and Sampling Strata 4 and 6, also on the south side of the butte.

Miscellaneous bones include the remains of adult and subadult individuals which may be parts of the individuals represented in Burials 2 and 3. However, the context of these bones on the south side of the butte, far from the kivas where Burials 2 and 3 were found, may indicate that they are not from the same individuals. Infant bones (PDs 174 and 200 in the midden) were also recovered.

Discussion of Castle Rock Pueblo Skeletal Remains

In all, at least six individuals, ranging from infant through elderly adult, are represented in the collection of scattered human remains from Castle Rock Pueblo. Six skeletal elements show evidence of carnivore activity in the form of tooth marks/punctures. In addition, two elements, a proximal femur and a distal fibula from Burial 3, have cuts near major joints. The two cuts noted are very large and obvious. Since I did not examine the bones under a low power microscope for cut marks, additional evaluation with a focus on cut marks is warranted.

From 1992 through 1994, Crow Canyon expanded its excavations at Castle Rock Pueblo and discovered additional human remains not reported here. The results of these excavations, including complete descriptions and interpretations of all human remains recovered from Castle Rock Pueblo, will be reported at a later date.

Discussion of Site Testing Program Human Remains

The following discussion of the human remains recovered from the Testing Program excavations looks at demographic structure, pathology, and burial position. The initial results of the stable isotope analysis are also presented. In addition, the human remains from the tested sites are compared to human remains recovered from Sand Canyon Pueblo and other neighboring sites.

Demographic Structure

The remains reported here include at least 29 individuals; some of these individuals are represented by only one or a few elements. Several of these individuals were identified in the field and the bones were not collected.

The age distribution shows that there are 15 adults and 11 subadults (including five infants, and six individuals ranging in age from 2 years ± 1 year to 14-15 years). Two other subadults could not be aged more specifically, and one individual (a burial that was not collected) could only be determined as subadult or adult. Three females and two males could be sexed. Most of the adults could not be aged specifically. Of the four adults with age indicators present, one is aged 17-19 years, one is aged 25-30, and two are probably over 50 years old. Figure 19.1 shows the age distribution of 18 individuals from the tested sites sample. The age distribution of individuals buried at Sand Canyon Pueblo is shown in Figure 19.2.

Pathology

Very little evidence of pathology was present in this collection. The young female from Troy's Tower shows considerable cranial deformation in the form of occipital flattening, presumably due to cradleboarding during infancy. This same individual has a large perimortem fracture over the right eye and healed trauma to the lower jaw. The cranial fracture may have been the cause of death. However, it is not possible to state from the skeletal evidence alone that the break is not postmortem. The burial context does not suggest postmortem damage. One isolated premolar from Castle Rock Pueblo has large caries, and a maxilla shows evidence of periodontal resorption. Six skeletal elements from Castle Rock Pueblo show tooth marks from carnivores, and two have postmortem cuts.

Burial Position

Of the four primary burials, two were flexed or semiflexed with the cranium face down or slightly to one side. The burial from G and G Hamlet was arranged fully extended with arms folded across the abdominal region. The burial from Troy's Tower was also extended, lying on the left side with the face down. The burial from G and G Hamlet is thought to be a late Pueblo II burial (circa 1080), whereas the other burials are late Pueblo III. The more usual burial position among the ancient Puebloans is flexed to semiflexed and lying on one side (Stodder 1987). Stodder (1987), citing Stanislawski (1963), comments on the rarity of extended burials in the Southwest which appear in greater numbers during the Pueblo III period. Eight individuals studied as part of the Dolores Archaeological Program were buried in an extended position, though they were not rigidly arranged (Stodder 1987). The remaining "individuals" from the tested sites were secondary deposits or bone scatter.

Stable Isotope Analysis

Stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen were analyzed for samples from selected burials in order to compare diet among the inhabitants of the tested sites, and between the inhabitants of the tested sites and those living at Sand Canyon Pueblo. Data were obtained for one individual from each of the following sites: Roy's Ruin, Troy's Tower, Lester's Site, and Lookout House. Data were also obtained on bones selected from the commingled burials at Castle Rock Pueblo (two samples from Burial 2 and two samples from Burial 3). No infant bones were analyzed. Table 19.2 presents the results of the stable isotope analysis, along with the mean values for the tested sites sample and the sample from Sand Canyon Pueblo.

Instrumental precision is approximately ± 0.2‰ for carbon and ± 0.3‰ for nitrogen. Carbon to nitrogen ratios were determined for all samples as a test of collagen preservation and purity. All sample C/N values ranged between 2.9 and 3.7 and are representative of well-preserved protein.

For the stable isotope results, differences of more than 1‰ indicate dietary differences. The carbon isotope values (¹³C = -6.7 to -6.9) for individuals from Sand Canyon Pueblo, Roy's Ruin, Troy's Tower, and one individual from Castle Rock Pueblo (the subadult in Burial 2) reflect greater consumption of maize or other C₄ plants when compared with the individuals from Lester's Site, Lookout House, and another individual from Castle Rock Pueblo (the adult in Burial 2), which all have carbon isotope values of -8.1.

The slight differences in ¹⁵N values (10.0-10.2 vs. 8.0-9.3 for the remaining sites) suggest higher meat consumption relative to plant foods for individuals from two of the tested sites (Lester's Site and Lookout House) and for one of the individuals from Castle Rock Pueblo (the adult in Burial 2). The sample from Troy's Tower looks more similar, isotopically, to the samples from Sand Canyon Pueblo than to the other tested sites' samples (Figure 19.3). All four tested sites (Lester's Site, Lookout House, Troy's Tower, and Castle Rock Pueblo) which show higher nitrogen values date to the abandonment period. Lester's Site and Lookout House are small habitation sites, Castle Rock Pueblo is a somewhat larger habitation site, and Troy's Tower is a special-function site. The results of stable isotope analysis on the burial from Troy's Tower suggest that this individual may have been a Sand Canyon Pueblo resident.

Overall, the carbon isotope results indicate considerable reliance on maize. Other foods which may have contributed to the ¹³C values include amaranth, cactus fruits, and the flesh of animals, such as antelope and jackrabbit, who consumed C₄ grasses.

Nitrogen isotope values indicate an average reliance on animal protein as compared to other human populations. Higher values have been reported in the American northeast (Katzenberg 1992a), where fish and meat are important components of the diet.

Comparison with Human Remains from Sand Canyon Pueblo and Neighboring Sites

The burials from Sand Canyon Pueblo have been analyzed for sex, age at death, evidence of trauma, and burial position and placement (Katzenberg 1992b). The combined evidence indicates violence and interpersonal strife in the small burial sample from Sand Canyon Pueblo. The burials from the tested sites show a different demographic pattern, with more adults and at least two males. To date, only one adult male has been recovered from Sand Canyon Pueblo. It should be pointed out that sampling bias may account for some of the differences noted below between Sand Canyon Pueblo and the tested sites.

Four burials in this study were located in middens, and one, from Troy's Tower, was recovered from a large pit (Structure 4). The commingled burials from Castle Rock Pueblo were also located in structures. The skeleton with the most convincing evidence of perimortem trauma is the young female from Troy's Tower. The male recovered from a midden at Lookout House shows a skull fracture, and it is difficult to determine if the fracture and point of impact in evidence on the remains is postmortem damage or perimortem trauma. In several respects--age, sex, burial placement and location, evidence of trauma, and stable isotope values--the individual from Troy's Tower is very similar to the burials from Sand Canyon Pueblo.

Stodder (1987) discusses the occurrence of isolated, disturbed human bone from the Dolores Archaeological Program. She points out that human activity, such as the remodeling and building of structures, is one of several causes of displacement of burials (Stodder 1987:362). At Castle Rock Pueblo, the occurrence of extra hand and foot bones could be explained by disturbance and redistribution of primary burials.

Summary

This chapter presents descriptive data on burials and miscellaneous human bone recovered from sites excavated as part of the Site Testing Program. Descriptions include identification of sex, age at death, evidence of disease and injury, and the results of stable isotope analyses. The data are compared to similar data for 20 individuals from Sand Canyon Pueblo.

The small sample from the tested sites includes individuals of all ages and both sexes. Most were buried in middens as formal burials or were represented by miscellaneous scattered bone. The two exceptions--the burial from Troy's Tower and the commingled remains from Castle Rock Pueblo--show signs of possible trauma suggestive of the same pattern of violence seen at Sand Canyon Pueblo.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Jeannette Smith, Sherry Norman, and Sylvia Abonyi, all students in the Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary. Jeannette prepared samples for stable isotope analysis and prepared the burials for examination. Sherry and Sylvia helped with the descriptive phase of analysis. Cindy Bradley of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center assisted with additional analyses which were carried out at Crow Canyon. Stable isotope analysis was carried out in the laboratory of Dr. H. Roy Krouse, Department of Physics, University of Calgary, with the technical assistance of Nanita Lozano.

1. Katzenberg analyzed the skeletal remains of 18 individuals and over 100 pieces of miscellaneous human bone recovered as part of the Site Testing Program. Later, during routine laboratory cross checking, additional material not included in Katzenberg's analysis was incorporated into the database, and some materials analyzed earlier by Katzenberg were reexamined by Crow Canyon staff. This chapter has been revised to include both the new and the updated information. Ed.

2. The text and tables of this chapter, and Appendixes C through F, use the Crow Canyon provenience system. The two- or three-part code identifies the location of an item at a site. The first number is a provenience indicator (PD), the second number is a laboratory catalog number (FS), and the third number, when assigned, is a point location number (PL).

The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: Site Testing

The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project

Site Testing

Edited by Mark D. Varien

19

Human Skeletal Remains